



/f^f 




MANUAL 



OF THE 



WINONA NORMAL 
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 



COURSE OF 

STUDY 



WINONA •• MINNESOTA 






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MANUAL 



OF THE 



WINONA NORMAL 

ELEMENTARY 
SCHOOL 



COURSE OF STUDY 



WINONA, MINNESOTA 



1909 



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TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Part I 

Preface 

Introduction — What the School Stands For. 
Kindergarten 
Arithmetic 
Geography- 
History 
Nature Study 
Physical Education 
Review Class 
Part II 

Language and Grammar 

Literature and Reading 

Drawing 

Manual Training 

Domestic Art 

Music 

Penmanship 

Spelling 



PREFACE 

This is a revision of the manuals published in 1903 and 1907. 
Others will follow from time to time as new matters and changes worthy 
of note shall arise. We therefore request the hearty co-operation of 
school teachers and superintendents in making the series of practical 
value for the purposes intended. We invite suggestions, criticisms and 
other aid that will help the school to be of greater assistance to the 
teachers of the state. 

The manual has been prepared for two purposes. Our student 
teachers require a hand-book to aid them in becoming intelligently 
acquainted with a graded school course of study. In the second place 
our graduates and other teachers and superintendents thruout the 
state may be interested to know what position the Winona normal 
school takes in regard to points, dabatable or otherwise, in the course 
of study. 

In assisting to modernize the course of study for elementary schools 
we realize that a normal school must not go too far from the commonly 
accepted course of study lest student teachers be handicapped by being 
thrown into situations too strange, when, after graduation, they begin 
their independent teaching. Consequently this course of study is not 
so much an expression of what we might like to do as it is a statement 
of what seems practicable in the schools of Minnesota. That is to say, 
we try to have in our elementary school for the observation of our 
student teachers, not a course that is theoretically ideal (if there could 
be such), but one that is usable in any graded school in the state. 

Variations in literary style which may be remarked by one who 
reads this manual as a unit, as well as implicit differences of opinion 
upon psychological and pedagogical questions, point to the fact 
that this course of study is the joint product (after prolonged discus- 
sions) of members of the faculty most concerned with the various 
subjects. 



WHAT THE SCHOOL STANDS FOR 



WHAT THE SCHOOL STANDS FOR 

There are few data of scientific accuracy back to which we may 
go for principles of direction in the construction of a course of study. 
On the one hand, there is no standard by which to judge as to what 
knowledge is of most worth. Some affirm that all branches of 
knowledge have equal value (for discipline, at least), others that 
each subject has quite distinct values, and still others that their 
values depend upon the point of view and methods of presentation. 
We knoiv, (in the accurate use of the term), neither what 
subjects to put into a course of study, at what point to put them in, 
nor how to apportion the time to be given to each. Nevertheless, 
in the presence of such empirical conditions we are confronted by a 
practical situation which demands that the children of the nation 
be taught something, be prepared, whether well or poorly, for active, 
practical Hfe. We, therefore, are compelled to construct some sort 
of curriculum. 

In the absence of scientifically accurate basal facts, we are 
compelled to rely pretty largely upon the general principles 
which He behind our efforts, much as the traveler who does not 
know what he will do each day, falls back upon the plan of keeping 
in view his final goal and doing his best to make each day's condi- 
tions assist in the accomplishment of his journey. So in educa- 
tion — aims, values, and purposes occupy a very prominent place 
while the subjects and division of subjects in a course of study 
occupy one comparatively less important, since in the absence of 
scientific backing they may be blown about by every wind of doc- 
trine. 

And, indeed, the meanings, values, and purposes of education 
are themselves somewhat uncertain. They change from generation 
to generation and vary with the locaHty of the school and the per- 
sonality of individuals. Yet in each generation and in each locaHty 
a group of tendencies and purposes fonii themselves and become 
a direct influence in the school, both upon the objective goal and in 
the formation of a course of study. These tendencies are hard to 
describe in full and one can hope to do Httle more than pick out 
some of those that are emphasized most strongly. 

The aim of our elementary school is to assist children to appre- 
ciate the values of life and to get control of them. (The training of 
student teachers is incidental in this connection.) 



WHAT THE SCHOOL STANDS FOR 



By values of life we mean those things which today are con- 
sidered worth while, which people are proud to possess or to be 
connected with. To catalog them all would be impossible. To 
catalog the most important would also be impossible. All we can 
do is to state those which we believe to be the most important for 
us and for the state of Minnesota. 

One of the chief values of life is a strong, vigorous, healthy 
physique. To further this, we have this year a well equipped gym- 
nasium in which every pupil of the elementary school receives in- 
struction and is allowed some free play under competent super- 
vision. Physical examinations are conducted by an appointed 
school physician, assisted by the directress of physical education. 

Another chief value of life is information. Being the method 
by virtue of which all control or growth of appreciation is possible , 
it is everywhere present in life and education. Because of this, it 
has received almost exclusive attention in education in generations 
past. In the process of time it grew to be no longer a means but 
an end of education. In recent years it has been a sign of so-called 
progressiveness to snatch from its head its ancient crown, 
but it is too useful, too all-pervasive to disappear, tho it continues 
no longer as monarch, but stands firm upon its virtue as an in- 
dispensable member of the family of experience. 

Another chief value is a fine, warm, enthusiastic social con- 
sciousness, one that takes into account the value of friendship, of 
service, of reliance and dependence, one that alternately and simul- 
taneously gives to and receives from society. The attention paid 
to this value is rapidly rising and greater and greater stress is likely 
to be laid upon it, at least temporarily, in the near future. We 
are not among the radicals in following this tendency, but we recog- 
nize its worth. We do not have our children work in groups to any 
great extent, altho we have such in manual training, when, for in- 
stance, several boys work together on an ice boat, or when the 
boys build the doll house and the girls furnish it, or when the 
more clever of the children are allowed to assist the others to a 
limited degree. We also make the social motive the main basis for 
our school discipline and utilize it in our reading and language. 
The children are taught in discipline to recognize the doctrine of 
non-interference with others and of helpfulness to others, including 
their classmates, the janitors and the teachers. In reading and 



WHAT THE SCHOOL STANDS FOR 



language we make it a central principle of method of instruction 
that both of these subjects are tools by which to express our ideals 
to other people. This value is again seen as one of the controlling 
principles in history. By this we mean that an important aim of 
history instruction is to make past situations so real that in imag- 
ination the children may in some degree actually live the lives and 
feel the problems of the people concerned. 

Another chief value is a rich, sensitive, aesthetic nature. In 
this two factors operate — an aesthetic environment, and instructors 
in sympathy with the best art. This, we believe, is one of the 
strongly marked characteristics of our school. In music we have 
the best chorals and songs sung in chapel and in the regular singing 
period ; we also have the rhetrostyle by which the pupils become ac- 
quainted with the works of the masters of music. In art we have 
been able to secure by purchase and gift reproductions of the works 
of the master painters and sculptors. In literature a wide selection 
"is made from the many texts mentioned under that subject in this 
manual, so that the children will be able to spend their time upon 
only the best. 

Other chief values of life are religion and morality, one of which 
we try to teach thru its particular manifestation, reverence, and the 
other of which we try to inculcate in the everyday procedure of life, 
by laying stress upon such virtues as cleanliness, self-control, obe- 
dience, and honesty, supplemented by certain more or less formal 
work in ethics. 

By appreciation we mean both intellectual appreciation, with 
an eye to values, ability to get the perspective of things, and what 
we may, for want of a better term, call emotional appreciation. 
Intellectual appreciation of values is calculating, deliberate, cold; 
emotional appreciation is warm, joyous; intellectual appreciation 
steadies the emotional, and the emotional in return gives life and 
joy to the intellectual. The ways in which we try to 
get this in the school are intangible and difficult to state in words. 
For the most part it comes thru stress laid upon personality rather 
than upon subject-matter, upon the man rather than upon 
knowledge, upon the content of experience rather than upon forms, 
upon entering into experience, upon dramatization and upon mak- 
ing situations real by illustrations and devices. 

By control of these values we mean that we lay emphasis upon 



WHAT THE SCHOOL STANDS FOR 



the ability of a child to secure, to obtain, to lay hold on them. 
It stands for efficiency. If the child has the capacity for aesthetic 
enjoyment he ought to be able to get this sesthetic enjoyment; if he 
wishes to be of social service he ought to know how to be able to 
be of social service; if he has a desire for a religious life he ought 
to have the skill to live a religious life. When he has a scheme of 
values he should be able to fulfil his heart's desire in connection 
with any of them. 

It lays emphasis upon the discipline of the powers, upon effi- 
cient endeavor, upon fluency of expression, upon power to organize, 
upon accuracy and readiness, and upon good judgment and common 
sense. Mere knowledge, mere enjoyment, mere aesthetic appre- 
ciation must be supplemented by the ability to use them. 

These tendencies may be illustrated in their practical working 
in the subject-matter of the course of study. They produce certain 
characteristics which have several manifestations in the school. 

In the first place, there is a tendency to modernize the course 
of study because of the fact that we have an intellectual appreciation 
of the values of life. Values change and many things which were 
once of value are no longer so. Yet in spite of this they remain, 
and hence need to be lopped off. This modernization shows itself 
in arithmetic where we have eliminated from our course of study 
phases of work no longer socially serviceable. It is seen again in 
history when we lay less stress than formerly upon wars, and more 
upon government growth, less upon fiction, and more upon fact. 
In geography we are not discarding so much as adding to the sub- 
ject-matter by bringing in descriptions of processes of growth and 
manufacture and a knowledge of relations between products and 
phenomena and physical condition. 

A second manifestation of these tendencies is the endeavor to 
introduce subject-matter thru its function. Control is an aim of 
Hfe and subject-matter is the means stored up for securing control, 
for solving problems, etc., and is best introduced when the need for 
it has arisen, when the problem it will help has come to the surface, 
or when the desire it fulfils is felt. This shows itself in various ways. 

In drawing the children paint first and then as it is required 
technique is introduced. In reading the children read first and 
then as the need of symbol study is felt' it is given. In arith- 
metic many processes, measures, denominate quantities, rules, 



WHAT THE SCHOOL STANDS FOR 



and devices are so introduced. Similarly, attention is paid to 
words in composition work because failure to spell correctly 
causes misundertanding. And again in history one topic provides 
a clue for the introduction of a later one. 

This branches easily into a method which, called by various 
names, is based upon the fact that subject-matter not only may be 
used as a tool of experience, but has been constructed by experience 
as it worked freely and naturally in its everyday activities. It, 
therefore, follows that much of the technique of experience in the 
school room may be constructed by experience without much con- 
scious effort. Experience has learned the habit. For instance, 
in reading the children's desire to read what they know to other 
people makes them reasonably expressive readers without paying 
much attention to the technique. So in writing, the desire to write 
so that their friends may understand them, makes them fairly good 
writers without much attention to the matter in formal writing 
lessons. This is what may be defined as one phase of the thought 
method, of the experience method, of the natural method, or of the 
purposive method. 

A third manifestation closely related to the fact that the func- 
tion of subject-matter is to assist experience, is that of the attempt 
to parallel the subject-matter and the experience of the child. 
Since subject-matter is an aid, it cannot be presented in a form more 
complex and subtle than the experience of the child. When a child 
is at an age when he thinks in paragraphs, it is a serious mistake 
to have him try to distinguish fine shades in the meanings of words, 
and when he is unable to analyze, it is a mistake to expect explana- 
tions of problems in arithmetic. On the other hand, when he is 
able to do difficMlt work he should not be hampered with easy work. 
A strict parallel should be preserved. 

To secure this parallel we have for the most part in practical 
procedure to make the subject-matter in the grades simpler, to 
move the subject-matter up the grades and hold the children to 
greater skill in handling it. For instance, in arithmetic we do not 
require formal analysis below the sixth grade, because it tends to 
result in the mere mechanical memorizing of the form given. In 
manual training we have work such as pottery in the lower grades 
which does not require fineness of co-ordination, and little is done in 
any grade in hard wood which requires great fineness. In language 



10 WHAT THE SCHOOL STANDS FOR 

we have little technique, except incidentally, below the sixth grade. 
In the sixth grade we take the paragraph because the children are 
just then beginning to be able to pick out big thoughts; in the sev- 
enth grade sentences, and in the eighth grade the finer distinctions 
between words as shown chiefly in the more complex forms of gram- 
mar. 

In addition to this, we utilize the newer sort of subject-matter 
sometimes appearing under the name of history, sometimes under 
that of manual training, and again as geography, known generally 
and roughly as studies in primitive life. This subject-matter is used 
by us almost entirely from the standpoint of providing simple 
situations in which the fundamental problems of modern life, such 
as food, shelter, family, etc., are solved in simple ways rather than 
from that of attempting to have the children live the lives of these 
people and be savages with them. We find these problems and 
solutions in simplified form in the stories of the Tree Dwellers and 
Cave Men, of Ab, of Robinson Crusoe, in pioneer life, in The Seven 
Little Sisters, and in such manual training work as the evolution 
of milling and of the plow, all of which are made the basis of con- 
struction and sand-table work. 

We, then, stand for the following: 

1. A simplified course of study with rigid standards of excellence. 

2. No subject-matter without some need for it. 

3. The ability to get control of what is worth while. 

4. The things worth while are social, intellectual, physical, esthetic 
and moral enjoyment and efficiency. 

5. No more attention to technique than is necessary for efficient 
control. 



PART I 



KINDERGARTEN 

INTRODUCTION 

To help little children to adjust themselves to the life about 
them and to prepare them for the more formal school life, the kin- 
dergarten stands as the natural link between the home and the 
school. It partakes of the nature of both, for it preserves and util- 
izes the spirit, the relations, and the experiences of home life, and 
brings to the children added power to organize time, and to sys- 
temize play and work. This develops in the children habits of 
thought and action, which prepare them for the work of the school. 

The kindergarten is a little social community in which chil- 
dren of similar ages under guardianship meet on an equal footing, 
share with one another various experiences, play and labor indi- 
vidually for personal advantage, or co-operatively for the good of 
the group, thereby developing those traits of character which lay 
the basis for right citizenship and true selfhood. 

The whole child is taken into account in the kindergarten, 
hence ample opportunity for exercise and out-door life is provided 
thru games, rhythmic plays, walks, and excursions. To promote 
mental development, stories, songs and morning talks are utilized 
— for the pleasure which they give, for stimulation to the imagina- 
tion, for imparting information, and for implanting ideals; for giv- 
ing correct ideas of existing relations, and incidentally for their 
value as language lessons. The so-called gifts and occupations of 
the kindergarten are included in this category and are employed 
chiefly to develop in the children the power to do things, rather than 
as a means of imparting knowledge. Special attention is given to 
the development of those habits of conduct which are necessary 
to the happiness and well-being of the individual and of the group. 
The children are led to be helpful, to observe the rights of others, 
and to be courteous and kind. The retributive method of discipline 
is employed; thus the children are led to distinguish between the 
right and the wrong by reaping the natural consequences of right 
or wrong acts. 



12 KINDERGARTEN 



The complete course covers a period of two years, the children 
being admitted at four years of age. The children meet in one 
group for the morning and closing circles and for the games and 
rhythmic plays; for the stories, morning-talks, and table work (gift 
and occupation work) they are graded into three divisions accord- 
ing to their ages and experience, and the work is adapted to their 
various stages of development. 

The enlarged Froebelian gifts are used thruout the course, and 
the directed work which is given is intended to suggest to the chil- 
dren the possibilities of the material, and thus to stimulate the 
children to do original work. Opportunity for free play — viz : 
original work — with the gifts is a conspicuous part of our daily 
program. 

In our occupation work we lean toward the freer and more 
expressive forms of work — free and illustrative drawing, free 
cutting, clay modeling, etc. The directed work with the occupa- 
tions, as with the gifts, is to develop in the children the power to 
handle materials in such a way as will lead to independent and pro- 
ductive results. 

In selecting stories to be used in the kindergarten, we aim to 
present those that make a distinct appeal to children and, at the 
same time, have some literary value. Very little formal marching 
is given. In its place we have rhythmical plays of various kinds, 
such as forms of walking, running, skipping, imitative movements, 
and simple ring games. 

THE PROGRAM 

In preparing a program for the kindergarten, the teacher must 
not only consider the nature and needs of the individuals to be 
trained, the experiences which they have had prior to their kinder- 
garten days, the environment in which they live, and the influences 
which have surrounded them, but must also be able to weigh these 
various factors and deteraiine what is of worth in this total of ex- 
perience. To do this, she must study her group of children and 
their activities in relation to the development of collective hu- 
manity, for from the study of the development of mankind she gets 
her standard of values. The immediate experiences of the children 
are her points of departure for the work of the year. From these 



KINDERGARTEN 13 



she is to lead her children into broader and richer experience by 
interpreting for them some of the familiar phenomena of life about 
them, and by introducing them to more distant phases of life which 
more or less directly affect their own little lives. It stands to rea- 
son that a fixed program will not be fitted to the needs of all classes 
of children. The following program was prepared for a class of 
children having more or less varied experiences and living in our 
city, which combines in an unusual degree the advantages of city 
life and the environment of country life. The children know at 
first hand a river, a lake, bluffs, meadows, etc., and the squirrel, 
which plays an important part in the program, is a familiar figure 
in the streets of Winona. 

FALL TERM 

1. The Home Experiences of the Children — The members of the 

family; the children's pets, playthings and plays; the father's 
and the mother's work; the kindergarten home and the kind- 
ergarten doll. 

Analogy in Nature — Families in the world of nature — squirrels, 
birds, etc. — their work and plays. 

2. Preparation for Winter — Mother's work in the home; father's 
contribution; the care of the yard; storing of fruits, vegetables, 
and fuel. 

Analogy in Nature — The squirrel's preparation; storing food 

for winter; preparing of the home. 

Preparation in the World of Nature — The flowers, seeds — only 

two or three familiar varieties; the caterpillar; the birds; the 

trees; changes in weather conditions. 

A Helper - — The farmer and his harvest ; our dependence upon 

him; visit shop to see fall vegetables; gathering of vegetables 

from the kindergarten garden. 

3. Thanksgiving, a culmination of the fall thought — General 

causes for thankfulness, of the children, of nature's family; 

specific things for which we are thankful — food, bread and 

butter; Thanksgiving day. 

Note — In taking up the subject of bread, the finished product 
is traced to its source ; later the children grind the wheat seeds into 
flour which they sift and then send to the Domestic Science Depart- 



14 KINDERGARTEN 



ment where it is made into bread and returned to the kindergarten. 

Butter is made by the children in the kindergarten, an ordinary 

cream whip being used as a churn. 

Excursions — Excursions each week to view changes being wrought 
by nature and to observe squirrels, birds, etc. ; work in kinder- 
garten garden. 

Stories — Thumbling, (*15) ; The Three Bears, (4) ; The Frog Prince, 
(1); Dora and the Light House, (15); The Squirrel Family, 
(adapted, 6) ; The Crane's Express, (6) ; The Little Green Cater- 
pillar, (adapted, 13); Which Was Happier, (Primary Educa- 
tion) ; The Big Red Apple, (3) ; Tommy Tucker's Bun, (14) ; 
The Little Red Hen, (4). 

Songs — Greeting, (29); Hymn, (28); The Wandering Doll, (29); 
The Dolly I Love Best, (23); The Flowers' Lullabye, (30); 
Mr. Squirrel, (26) ; The Farmer, (28) ; Mr. Duck and Mr. Tur- 
key, (26); Pat-a-Cake, (33); The Pigeon House, (28); Jack 
Frost, (31); America, Humpty-Dumpty, Wee Willie Winkie, 
Ba-Ba Black Sheep, (24). 

Finger Plays — The Family, (29) ; The Caterpillar, The Little Boy's 
Walk, (22). 

Rhythms — Simple hand movements, musical instruments, etc. 
walking, running, jumping, skipping; the home-work of mother; 
the farmer's work; swaying trees; flying birds. 

Games ■ — Ball games, rolling to children, rolling to center, batting 
ball; sense games, smell and taste; The Mystery Man, (38); 
Itiskit-Itaskit, (34); The Mulberry Bush, (34); Skip Tag; Let 
us Chase the Squirrel, (23); Sleep Fairy; Train Game, (27); 
The Pigeon House, (28) ; Turn, Said the Stream, (30) ; Going 
to Grandmother's, (28). 

Table Work — Younger group: The large blocks (Hennessy's) ; 
the first gift — activity ; three primary colors ; directions round 
and round, and up and down; second gift — group work, fam- 
ilies of forms ; third gift — constructive plays ; the circular tab- 
lets; seed work. Free and directed work in sand bed; black- 
board drawing, clay modeling, bead stringing, pasting, cut- 
ting — for control of scissors ; over and over sewing — without 
needles ; peg-boards ; stringing of seeds ; making scrap books. 



*For significance of numbers see book list. 



KINDERGARTEN 15 



Note. With the younger group more emphasis is placed on the 
occupation work than on the gift work. 

Older Group : First gift — brief review of cclor and emphasis 
on directions ; the fourth and fifth gifts — constructive work ; 
square and right angled tablets; sticks, rings and seeds; large 
blocks. Group work, whole class. Free and illustrative work 
in sand bed; clay modeling; free and illustrative drawing, 
crayons; cutting, free and to line; card-board modeling, slit- 
work and simplest upright forms; folding — ^makingof mounting 
books for children's work; sewing, over and over — making of 
folios for use in kindergarten; weaving, co-operative and in- 
dividual; parquetry. 

WINTER TERM 

1. Service to Others — Santa Claus as the personification of the 
spirit of giving ; children as givers ; the story of the first Christ- 
mas. The entire month of December is devoted to the Christ- 
mas thought. 

2. The New Year and What it Brings — Seasons, birthdays, festi- 

vals, snow, rain, etc. Idea of time-order developed. 

3. How We are Protected From the Elements — Warm clothing — 
tracing to its source some child's garment; our houses, leading 
to the thought of a helper, the carpenter; the heating of our 
homes and the school, leading to the thought of the work of the 
miners. 

4. The Spirit of Knighthood — A brave helper of today — the fire- 
man; helpers of old — the knights; a knight of fiction — St. 
Valentine ; a knight of history — George Washington ; children 
as embodying knightly characteristics. 

Excursions — Visit toy-shop. 

Stories — Nannie Golden's Christmas Tree, (Ms.) ; The Two Stock- 
ings; Piccola, (12); St. Luke's version of the Nativity; The 
Fairy's New Year's Gift, (6); The Three Little Pigs, (4); The 
Little Heroine of Poverty Flat, (16); King Midas, (5); The 
Search for a Good Child, (17); The Boy, Cedric, (adapted, 11); 
The Boyhood of George Washington, (adapted, 12); Dora and 
the Light House, (15); Story of St. Valentine; 'Twas the Night 
Before Christmas. 



16 KINDERGARTEN 



Songs — Santa Claus, (27) ; Christmas Hymn, (30) ; The Wonderful 
Tree, (28); Merry Christmas, (31); The New and the Old Year, 
(28) ; Merry Snowflakes, (30) ; The Carpenter, (29) ; The Miner, 
(31); Ba, Ba, Black Sheep, (24) ; The Knights, (29); Our Flag, 
(31) ; Three Cheers for the Red, White and Blue. 

Finger Plays — The Lambkins, (22). 

Rhythms — The rocking horse; toys; carpenter's work; miner's 
work ; fancy march — wheel movement ; tick-tack ; military 
march ; feats of skill — running, jumping, throwing spear, 
hurdling. 

Games — Quiet game ; Neighbor, Neighbor Over the Way ; The 
Toy Man, (23) ; The Sand-Man, (23) ; Santa Claus, (22) ; Snow- 
ball; Snow-Man, (26); Skating Game, (37); The Cooper, (28); 
The Miner; Little Travellers, (23) ; The Five Knights, (29) ; The 
Soldier Boy, (34) ; King of France, (34) ; The Firemen. 

Table Work — Younger Group : Large blocks. First gift — color 
and direction. Second gift — group plays and whirling. 
Third and fourth gifts — constructive plays ; square tablets ; 
whole rings. Work in sand-bed, black-board drawing, free 
drawing with crayons, peg -boards. Cutting, pasting; sewing — 
over and over; folding — very simple folds. Christmas gifts 
based on occupation work. 

Older Group : Large blocks. Second gift — mechanical in- 
ventions. Fourth, fifth and sixth gifts — constructive work; 
right-angle and equilateral triangular tablets ; sticks and rings ; 
combinations of gifts for illustrative work. Work in sand-bed, 
free and illustrative drawing, free cutting; card-board modeling 
— dolls' furniture (children furnish the doll's house, thruout) ; 
v/eaving — combinations of weaving and sewing, thus making 
useful objects; poster-work; Christmas gifts employing the oc- 
cupations with which the children are familiar; making of 
badges, pennants, shields, etc., for holidays. 

SPRING TERM 

1. A Helper, The Blacksmith. Some heroes in the animal world. 

Connects with the work of the winter term, 

2. Heralds of Spring. — Nature's heralds — The wind, the sun, the 
rain, pussywillows, the robin; children's spring plays; the wheel 
and its use. 



KINDERGARTEN 17 



3. Nature's Awakening and What it Brings — The Easter thought ; 

the farmer's spring work; animal Hfe on the farm; the birds — 
four famihar and distinctive birds are observed as to their homes 
and hfe ; the trees — a few famihar trees studied ; insects ; the 
bees or ants ; the kindergarten garden, planning and planting 
the garden. 

4. The last two weeks are given to a review of the saUent features 

of the year's work. 

Note. — One day is devoted to the celebration of Froebel's birth- 
day. 

Excursions — Each week excursions are made to note signs of 
nature's awakening, for the observation of birds, trees, etc. 

Stories — The Little Grey Pony, (9) ; The Story of Bruce, (18) ; The 
Mother Stork; Raggylug, (4); The Little Half Chick, (3); The 
Disobedient Weather-Vane, (10); The Wind and the Sun, (6); 
The Little Green Worm, (13); The Sleeping Beauty, (1); The 
Sheep and the Pig, (3) ; The Little Red Hen, (3) ; The Lost 
Chicken, (6); The Disobedient Pine Tree, The Bird's Nest, 
Kindergarten Review, April 1909; The Myth of the Wood- 
pecker, (3) ; The Nest of Many Colors, (6). 

Songs — The Blacksmith, (28); Good Morning Glorious Sun, (31); 
The Wind, (29); Pussy-Willow, (31); Pit-A-Pat, (31); Robin 
Redbreast, (31); The Song of the Rain, (28); Easter Hymn, 
(30) ; The Bluebird, (26) ; The Barnyard Song, (29) ; The Song 
of the Bee, (28). 

Finger Plays — How the Corn Grew ; the Caterpillar ; The Counting 
Lesson (22). 

Rhythms — Hopping and flying birds; flying kites; the frogs; see- 
saw; the May-pole. 

Games — Two Little Windows, (38) ; Close Hidden in my Hand it 
Lies, (28); The Musician; The Visiting Game, (23); The Cukoo, 
(29) ; Oats, Peas, Beans, and Barley Grow, (34) ; The Bird's Nest 
(29) ; The Busy Bee, (27) ; Sense games. 

Table Work — Younger Group : First gift — directions and colors. 
Second gift — group work. Third and Fourth gifts — con- 
structive work; tablets, rings — wholes and halves, seeds, large 
blocks for group work. Occupations for winter term contin- 
ued and increased in difficulty. 
Older Group : The fifth and sixth gifts — individual and group 



18 KINDERGARTEN 



work. The children now having good control of material are 
allowed to work in small groups of two or three. All the tab- 
lets, sticks, and rings; combination of different gifts for con- 
structive purposes and for illustrative work — individual and 
group work. Directed work in the sand-bed; card-board 
modeling, advanced forms; clay modeling, free and illustra- 
tive ; drawing — crayons ; weaving ; poster -work ; making 
kites, etc. 
Note — A few good poems are read to the children during the year, 
and the children learn a few short memory gems. 

BOOK LIST 

Stories 

1. Grimm's Fairy Tales. 

2. The Children's Book, Scudder. 

3. For the Children's Hour, Bailey & Lewis. 

4. How to Tell Stories to Children, Bryant. 

5. The Wonder Book, Hawthorne. 

6. In the Child's World, Poulsson. 

7. Parables From Nature, Gatty. 

8. Stories to Tell to Children, Bryant. 

9. Mother Stories, Lindsay. 

10. Two Children of the Foothills, Harrison. 

11. In Story land, Harrison. 

12. The Story Hour, Wiggin. 

13. Cat-Tails and Other Tales, Howliston. 

14. Mother Goose Village, Bingham. 

15. Boston Collection. 

16. The Little Heroine of Poverty Flat. 

17. More Mother Stories, Lindsay. 

18. Stories of Brave Dogs from the St. Nicholas. 
Poems 

19. The Child's Garden of Verse, Stevenson. 

20. Poems of Childhood, Fields. 

21. The Posy Ring, Wiggin and Smith. 
Songs and Finger Plays 

22. Finger Plays, Poulsson. 

23. Holiday Songs, Poulsson. 



KINDERGARTEN 19 



24. Mother Goose Songs, Crowninshield. 

25. More Mother Goose Songs, Crowninshield. 

26. Small Songs for Small Singers, Neidlinger. 

27. Song Echoes From Childland, Jenks & Rust. 

28. Songs and Games for Little Ones, Walker and Jenks. 

29. Songs and Music of Froebel's Mother Play, Blow. 

30. Song Stories for the Kindergarten, Hill. 

31. Songs of the Childworld, Gaynor. 

32. The Child's Garden of Song — Tomhns. 

33. Songs for Little Children, Smith. 
Games and Rhythms 

34. Children's Singing Games, Hofer 

35. Instrumental Characteristic Rhythms, Parts I, II, Ander- 

son. 

. 36. Large Rhythmic Movements, Rogers. 

37. Music for the Child World. 

38. Timely Games and Songs for Kindergarten, Reed. 



20 ARITHMETIC 



ARITHMETIC 

I. INTRODUCTION 

While the instruction in arithmetic in the grades is designed 
in part to afford a necessary basis for more advanced work, the 
chief aims are, in general, to furnish sufficient arithmetical knowl- 
edge for the ordinary occupations of life, and to promote habits 
of accuracy, logical reasoning, and independence of thought 
and judgment and to aid in the interpretation of all great aspects of 
human life. The special aim in the lower grades is to promote speed 
and accuracy, especially as regards the combinations of numbers 
usually memorized, and the ready use of necessary tables. In the 
lower grades we do not require formal analysis on the part of the 
child. He is allowed to state his conclusions in his own way, un- 
hampered by the thought of the "process." He can be sure of many 
things which he cannot logically explain, nor express in technical 
terms. The premature requirement of accurately expressed defi- 
nitions, niceties of expression, statements of general principles and 
logical analysis, is almost certain to lead to mere memory work and 
confused notions, thus causing an early distaste for the subject. It 
is needless to say that the teacher should present each new subject 
in a logical manner, being satisfied that the children follow her 
explanation and appreciate the reasons for the process. The forms 
of expression used by the teacher should be scientifically accurate 
and, to an extent, technical. Gradually the pupils will adopt these 
forms and, if habits of accuracy and rapidity in computation are 
established, they will approach the formal analysis of process in 
the seventh and eighth grades with such preparation as to allow 
them to master in one year that which, under the forcing process, 
they fail to master in six. 

The majority of pupils who have completed the subject of 
arithmetic in the grades are inaccurate, uncertain, unable to do 



ARITHMETIC 21 



sustained mental work, and woefully slow. The average pupil 
figures, but he does not see relations; he ciphers, but he does not 
think; he reads words with no comprehension of thought. The 
explanation of this state of affairs we firmly believe to be too 
much formal analysis, as well as the imposition of work adapted 
to higher grades upon children of immature minds. It is cer- 
tainly most important that, in the presentation of a new subject, 
the teacher should lead the pupil to see the reason for each step, 
but, this assured, no foraial explanation should be demanded from 
children below the seventh grade. Previous to this time, possibly 
in the sixth grade, should begin the transition from the more or less 
mechanical work of the lower classes to the thought work, applica- 
tion of principles, and logical analysis of the grammar grades. Up 
to this time we consider it of far greater importance that a child 
be able instantaneously and accurately to divide % by %, than, in a 
parrot-like way, to go through a logical (?) demonstration of the 
process. For, with nine children out of ten, explanations are largely 
memorized. So with concrete problems. In too many of our 
schools, problems quite beyond the comprehension of the pupils 
have been forced upon them. When work of this nature is given to 
children unprepared for it, clear thinking is of necessity an impos- 
sibility. Hesitation and uncertainty become a fixed habit which 
might never have been formed had the pupil attacked his problem 
for the first time with a maturity capable of grasping it. The chil- 
dren, being absolutely unable to solve difficult problems, become 
so accustomed to expect aid from the teacher that this, too, becomes 
a fixed habit to such an extent that when the age is reached when 
independent thinking should be expected it is found necessary to 
develop every new subject in detail. 

It is then our purpose to make the required work in arith- 
metic less difficult than the requirement in the corresponding 
grades of most of the pubHc schools. To this end, first, the num- 
ber work of our first school year is done incidentally rather than 
formally; second, recognizing the fact that strong mathematical 
development is to be obtained from the study of arithmetic far 
beyond the grasp of the eighth grade child, the completion of the 
subject is assigned to two terms in the third year of the course in 
the Normal Department, after the study of algebra and geometry 
has paved the way to a real understanding of the principles involved ; 



22 ARITHMETIC 



and third, for the better mastery of more important topics we 
attempt to save time through the elimination of unnecessary mat- 
ter which formerly may have been valuable, but which we feel 
should be discarded because the old involved methods of solution 
have given place to newer and simpler methods, as in proportion 
and in the treatment of roots by the graphic method, or 
because, as business problems, they are obsolete, as in partnership, 
exchange, present worth, etc. It was not until the middle of the 
eighteenth century that the decimal fraction had any footing in 
the schools, although it was invented some one hundred fifty years 
prior to this time. The absence of the decimal fraction explains 
our inheritance of the greatest common divisor and least common 
multiple of large numbers, these being then needed for the solution 
of problems involving the enormous common fractions which are 
now so uncommon, hence, except for purposes of logical exercise 
in advanced work, so that pupils have a conscious method of pro- 
cedure, we omit problems in greatest common divisor and least 
common multiple. 

As number is essentially the result of measurement and com- 
parison, the idea of comparison is emphasized thruout the whole 
course in arithmetic. In this connection stress is laid upon the 
true nature of the unit — not a "single thing or one," but any 
quantity used as a basis of measurement or comparison. Com- 
parisons are required to be made directly, not thru the medium of 
the one, as is so frequently the case. To illustrate, let us compare 
the two methods of solving the following problem : 

If 4 yards of cloth cost $5.00, find the cost of 8 yards. 

First solution: Since 4 yards cost $5.00, one yard costs one- 
fourth of $5.00, or $1.25. Then 8 yards cost $1.25, or $10.00. 

Second solution: Since 4 yards cost $5.00, 8 yards cost 2 
$5.00, or $10.00. 

In the second solution the work is shortened by making the 
given quantity the basis of comparison, instead of the intermediate 
one yard. 

Thruout the work in comparison the difficult complex fractions 
should be avoided. Children may easily be drilled to make readily 
the necessary changes in the quantities given in order that they 
may be easily compared. If 2 yards is to be compared with 2^ 
yards, think of each quantity as expressed in half-yards. It is 



ARITHMETIC 23 



at once seen that the first is expressed by the number 4, the sec- 
ond by 5. So 3 yards compared with 4^ yards is 13, thinking of 
the number of third-yards in each case. Since, when the units 
are ahke, the numbers only are compared, the numbers only 
should be mentioned in making the comparison. For instance, in 
comparing f of a mile with | of a mile, think of both as twelfths, 
but mention only the number of twelfths ; so we simply compare 
8 with 9. 

The same method is applied to the solution of problems in 
compound proportion. To illustrate: If a tank 12 ft. long, 4 J 
ft. wide and f of a foot deep holds 270 gallons, how many gallons 
does a tank 24 ft. long, 3 ft. wide and | of a foot deep hold? 

7 135 

.Sr X^X^xj^CTgal. 



Since a tank 12 ft. long contains 270 gallons, one 24 ft. long 
contains twice as much. Since one 4j ft. wide contains that 
amount, one 3 ft. wide contains f of that amount. Since one f 
of a foot deep contains a certain amount, one ■§- of a foot deep 
contains iq of that amount. 

So in finding the number of any units of given dimensions 
contained in a given volume, we compare the dimensions of the 
whole with those of the unit; as: How many cords of wood in a 
pile 40 ft. long, 30 ft. wide, and 6 ft. high? 

Solution: Since a pile 8 ft. long, 4 ft. wide, and 4 ft. high 
contains 1 cord, a pile 40 ft. long, 30 ft. wide, and 6 ft. high con- 
tains 5 X 15 X 3 X 1 cord 

r=56i cords 

2X2 

Again, in reducing quantities from lower to higher units, the 
same method — comparison — is used; as: Reduce 5 rods, 4 yards, 
2 ft., 6 in. to rods. 6 in. = ^ ft. 2^ ft. is % of 3 ft., or % yd. ^% 
yards is H of 5^ yds., or il rd. Hence the whole quantity is 
5 is rods. 

So in division of decimals we teach the pupils to place the 
decimal point in the quotient as soon as the proper order is reached 



24 ■' ARITHMETIC 



instead of counting the number of orders after the division. This 
is easily done by reducing the dividend to the same unit as the 
divisor, when they may be compared as integers. To illustrate: 
If we are to divide 25.67893 by .035, since the divisor is a certain 
number of thousandths, we reduce the dividend to thousandths by 
simply placing a mark ( ^ ) after the thousandths digit ; then when 
that digit is reached place the decimal point. It is well to write 
the quotient above the dividend, not only because it makes the 
work more compact, but because, the decimal point coming di- 
rectly over the mark placed in the dividend, error is less liable 
to occur. 

733.68 



.035) 25.678^93 
245 



117 
105 



128 
105 

239 
210 



293 
280 



13 

In percentage we dwell upon the fact that the per cent is 
simply a number expressing the ratio of a quantity to a unit of 
measure, and, consequently, like any number, may be applied only 
to its unit. The pupils are led first to determine the unit, as, in 
profit and loss the unit is the cost, as it is the quantity with which 
the profit is compared; in commission it is the buying price when 
buying, the selling price when selling, etc. 

The following general directions are formally stated for solv- 
ing problems in percentage : 

1st. Determine the unit. 

2d. If the unit is given, apply the per cent to it. 

3d. If the unit is not given it must be represented by some 
convenient form, and two quantities must be found equal to the 
same thing, hence equal to each other. 



ARITHMETIC 25 



These formal directions are given only after the pupils have 
discovered through the solution of simple problems that this is 
just what they really do in the solution of any problem. 

In illustration of this method take an ordinary problem in 
commission involving both buying and selling. 

My agent sells for me $1030 worth of flour at 2% commission, 
and with the net proceeds buys wheat, deducting his commission 
at 3%. Required the cost of the wheat. 

Since in the first transaction the agent is selling goods, the 
unit is the selling price, so the commission is 2% of $1030, or $20.60, 
leaving the net proceeds $1009.40. In the second transaction the 
unit is the buying price which is not given. 
100% of the buying price = buying price. 
103% " " " " = " " and commission. 

$1009.40 = " 

103% of buying price = $1009.40. 
Buying price = }o3 of $1009.40 = $980.00. 

In finding what per cent one quantity is of another we simply 
compare the whole with the unit if the comparison can be easily 
made, as in the following problem: 

Goods costing $5000 are sold to gain $2000. Required, the 
gain per cent. The gain is 1 or 40% of the cost. 

The method used in case the given quantities are not easily 
compared may be shown in the solution of the following : 

Goods costing $2536.45 are sold to gain $75.26. Required, 
the gain per cent. 

Solution: Had the gain been one per cent, it would have 
been $25.3645, but since the gain is $75.26 it is as many per cent 
as there are $25.3645 in $75.26 or 2.9 = 2.9%. 

In our arithmetic classes we try to emphasize the importance 
of making each new subject treated a natural outgrowth from that 
previously pursued, and of never giving a direction until the need 
is felt; that rules should be memorized and followed only in the 
very rare cases when their use will materially save time; that in 
the lower grades explanations should be made by mere illustra- 
tion, rather than by the use of general principles ; that in the higher 
grades the converse is true; that the complete, accurate defini- 
tion has no place in the mental equipment of the child, while it is 
a most necessary adjunct to the teacher's pedagogical tool chest. 



26 ARITHMETIC 



While the physical object should have little or no place in 
the mathematical work of the higher grades, yet its analogue, the 
mental image, should be ever present. Pupils are too prone to 
think of figures rather than of magnitudes. Many a time one 
who seems to be hopelessly floundering is brought to his senses by 
being told to look at the thing itself, and see how it is. Hence in 
so-called business problems the pupil should enter into the trans- 
action himself, doing just what the supposed participant did. 

As an exercise in mathematical judgment a great deal of es- 
timating is demanded; in fact, with most of the problems only 
approximate results are required. It is astonishing to find how 
little our pupils are trained in this matter of judgment. Results 
manifestly absurd are accepted without question. It is a good 
sign that in one or two arithmetics recently published many prob- 
lems are given requiring only approximations. 

Roughly speaking, about one-third of the recitation time above 
the fifth grade should be given to written work, one-third to ac- 
curate oral work, and one-third to forecasting — giving approx- 
imate results. 

It should be the aim to free the pupil from the influence of 
the printed page, to lead him to deal with his problems as in real 
life. To this end, problems should be introduced involving actual 
occurrences taking place about him and he should be directed to 
make problems of his own. 

General References: McMurry's Special Method in Arith- 
metic; Young's The Teaching of Mathematics; Smith's The Teach- 
ing of Elementary Mathematics; Myer's Monograph, Deeper and 
Richer Meanings of Elementary Mathematical Teaching. 

II. SUBJECT-MATTER 

FIRST GRADE 

(introductory to arithmetic) 
(Numbers 1 - 100) 

1. Counting by I's, 2's, 5's, and lO's. 2. Finding sums by counting. 
3. Comparing groups thru counting. 4. Using fractions ^, ^. 



ARITHMETIC 27 



5. Telling time by whole, half, and quarter hours. 

6. Using inch, foot, yard, pint, and quart measures. 

7. Reading and writing figures. 

Although this definite amount of work is covered, it is taught 
incidentally rather than formally. Opportunities are seized, or 
made, which require the child to do those things which give him a 
rational conception (steadily growing in definiteness) of the num- 
bers found between 1 and 100, and of the other standards of meas- 
urement mentioned above. 

References: See general references; Language, Number and 
Construction, Frances LilHan Taylor, in Primary Education, Jan.- 
June, 1902; Hall's Primary Arithmetic, Introduction; Teachers' 
College Record, Jan. 1909, pages 1-70; Walter's Number Manual; 
The Curriculum of the Elementary School, reprinted from Teach- 
ers' College Record, 1908, pages 93-100. 

SECOND GRADE 
(Numbers 1 - 100) 

1. Learning the 45 addition facts: combinations of numbers thru 

10 in the first semester, and later adding 10 and 9 to all num- 
bers, adding doubles, and the 9 remaining combinations. 

2. Using the fractions ^, j, ^. 

3. Using cent, nickel, dime, quarter, fifty-cent piece, and dollar (toy 

money). 

4. Reading and writing figures. 

5. Writing examples in addition, in column form chiefly. 

Through opportunities arising incidentally in school manage- 
ment, hand work, and free play, and in especially prepared games 
and dramatizations, the children increase the intelligence and defi- 
niteness of their numerical concepts. Accuracy and speed are 
gained through competitive games and drills. 

References: Those given for first grade and The Curricu- 
lum of the Elementary School, pages 163-167. 

THIRD GRADE 

Since, beyond the second grade, number work gradually dif- 
ferentiates itself into a separate "study" having its own body of 
thought as well as its definite processes, at least three distinct tho 



28 ARITHMETIC 



overlapping aims must be kept in mind. These are: (1) To 
make pupils feel, thru natural life-situations, a vital need for each 
of the fundamental operations; (2) To help pupils to the mastery 
of these mathematically essential operations so that work may 
be done with almost machine-like precision and speed; (3) To find 
such uses for these operations in the child's social life as to point 
to the value of their being automatically learned, to give children 
a feeling of power over certain economic situations, to arouse 
"deep interest, surprise, and excitement" over the "valuable 
thoughts" introduced, or to contribute to their actual knowledge. 

In September all classes are given from two to five weeks' 
careful review of all preceding work, whereas mid-year classes need 
only a brief review, if any, since thruout the year, all mathematical 
facts once conquered are constantly reviewed and employed. 

References : Same as general, plus various text books in arith- 
metic — D. E. Smith, Young & Jackson, Milne, Myers, and others. 

B Class 

1. Reading and writing of numbers of six orders. 

2. Additive combinations perfectly learned and applied to all 
combinations below 100. 

3. Column and long addition mastered. 

4. Comparison of the fractional units of circles, surfaces, lines, 
and solids. 

5. Halves of any numbers. 

6. Thirds and fourths of evenly divisible numbers, and es- 
pecially such numbers as are needed in denominate number tables. 

7. Compound numbers learned in earlier grades constantly 
used, and such others added as are needed in computations, and 

,in applications of processes to life problems. 

8. Sense perception constantly exercised in estimating, in 
measuring, in constructive work, etc. 

9. Problems with one condition and problems requiring dia- 
grams to aid in the solution of the problem — not to illustrate it 
after it is solved. 

10. Texts: Hall, Arithmetic Primer, pp. 1-63. Supplemen- 
tary: Walsh, Primary Arithmetic, pp. 1-25, to subtraction. Note: 
Solve a,ll "Slate Problems" mentally, however; and in general avoid 
over -much written work. Additional texts in contemplation. 



ARITHMETIC 29 



A Class 

1. After a thoro review of all previous work, conquer the sub- 
ject of subtraction. Use Walsh's Primary Arithmetic, pp. 25-42, 
and much outside work of the same nature. 

2. Apply both addition and subtraction to problems that are 
worth while, and to those arising in other classes. 

3. Fix use of tenns sum, difference, product, etc., by daily use. 

4. Keep up practice upon subjects already covered, but do 
not let this work degenerate into mere repetition. Test briefly 
but frequently upon all points covered, teaching good form for 
written work. 

5. Recall simpler multiplicative combinations already learned, 
and use in easy multiplicatipn and division. Use also in fractional 
form, as lo of 120; ^ of 64; etc. 

6. Employ fractions and ratios as used in denominate num- 
ber tables; halves of all numbers, thirds and fourths of many 
numbers, fifths and tenths of evenly divisible numbers, sixths and 
twelfths used in linear measure, in the table of time, and in use of 
ones in a dozen, sevenths in studying days in a week. 

7. Emphasize skill in measurements, and the relations of units 
of measure in each denominate number table used. 

Text: Hall, Arithmetic Primer completed, i. e. pp. 63-108. 
Note : If done thoroly, this will result in the mastery of the earlier 
multiplication tables, but, at this point, the pupil should not be 
held back to master them. The table of 2's as a whole, and a few 
parts of other tables (as required in work with compound numbers) 
may be drilled upon and used in simple examples and problems. 

Some mid-year classes may be able to begin the Rational 
Elementary Arithmetic. 

FOURTH GRADE 
B Class 

1. Review any work done in Rational Elementary Arithmetic, 
as well as the mechanical work of preceding grades. 

2. Teach the multiplication tables in the order of their least 
difficulty, all along applying facts learned, to the processes of long 
multiplication, short division, and simple factoring, and especial- 
ly to economic problems, one of which is bill-making. 



30 ARITHMETIC 



3. Simple bill-making as a drill in multiplication. Children 
study prices and make own bills for class use. 

4. From this grows the need of knowing how to read, write, 
and compute U. S. money. 

5. As longer multiplication examples are given, there comes 
the need of notation and numeration to millions or beyond, so 
we develop the important principles of Arabic notation. 

6. Ratio and fraction work are emphasized in the text. 
Text: Belfield & Brooks, Rational Elementary Arithmetic, 

pp.^7-68 

Walsh, Primary Arithmetic as needed for supplementary drills 
in multiplication. 

Reference: "The MultipHcation Tables" by Theda Gilde- 
meister — a 10c pamphlet, pubHshed by A. Flanagan, Chicago. 
A Class 

1. As before, reviews must be frequent, but intelligent and 
spirited as well. Larger numbers in multiplication are drilled upon. 

2. Long division with two figures in the divisor taught. 

3. Concrete denominate work with construction and draw- 
ings emphasized. 

4. Technical terms used in all the fundamental operations 
should by this time be so thoroly fixed as to make possible the 
derivation of good definitions. 

5. The principles of Roman notation mastered with notation 
and numeration thru M. Dates written. 

6. Daily practice in using ratios, fractions, and denominate 
numbers, excellent work on which is found in the text. 

Text: Belfield & Brooks, Rational Elementary Arithmetic, 
pp. 68-127. 

Walsh, Primary Arithmetic, pp. 42-153 for supplementary 
work. 

FIFTH GRADE 
B Class 

1. Review work of previous grade. 

2. Complete the multiplication tables. 

3. Drill in the fundamental processes for speed and accuracy. 

4. Long division using more than two figures in the divisor. 
By the end of the B class the fundamental operations should be 
well in hand. 



ARITHMETIC 31 



5. Simple denominate number work dealing with the units 
used in common life — linear, surface, cubic, liquid, dry, avoirdu- 
pois weight, measures of time. United States money. Develop 
units by actual measurement and build up the tables. 

6. Common fractions — divide a whole and name parts ; con- 
struct whole from parts. 

7. Concrete problems involving small fractions, introduced 
without formal analysis. 

8. Problems occurring in connection with the work of the 
grade — manual training, geography, history, domestic art, etc. 

9. Children are led to invent problems. 

10. Special stress is laid upon form and neatness of the written 
work. 

Text: Belfield & Brooks, Rational Arithmetic, pp. 127-185, 
and 197-199 for division. Supplementary: Milne, Progressive 
Arithmetic, Books I and II; Smith, Primary Arithmetic; Myers, 
Book II. 

References: All given above. 
A Class 

1. Drill and problem work involving the fundamental opera- 
tions. 

2. Measurements — linear, square, cubic, liquid, dry, avoirdu- 
pois weight, time, paper. Thoroly master the practical parts of 
tables. 

3. Addition and subtraction of simple fractions. Other fun- 
damental operations in fractions used as occasion requires. 

4. Bill writing, with stress laid upon form; finding amounts 
of; receipting. Material for this is furnished by work of the other 
subjects, especially manual work and domestic art. 

5. Problems growing out of work in other subjects. 

6. Original problems. 

Text: Belfield & Brooks, Rational Elementary Arithmetic, 
pp. 185-262. Supplementary: Smith, Intermediate Arithmetic; 
Southworth & Stone, Book I; Myers, Book II. 

SIXTH GRADE 
B Class 

, The work here deals very largely with facts and experiences 
within the daily life of the child. We take actual measurements 



32 ARITHMETIC 



in and about the building; any building or repairing being done is 
noted; estimates of materials needed, cost of construction, etc., 
are made; room ventilation is tested. Practical problems arise in 
manual training, map drawing, and reading. Pupils are led to 
forecasting — giving approximate results — by such questions as : 
How long do you think this black board is? How wide? How 
much do you think it v^^ould cost to slate it? Estimate the amount 
of money needed to slate the boards in this room, etc. What do 
you suppose it costs to heat this building for one day — a week — 
a term — a year ? 

Text: Southworth and Stone, Book II, pp. 1-62, 197-236. 

References: Southworth and Stone, Arithmetic, Book I; 
Smith, Intermediate Arithmetic. 
A Class 

Simple work in fractions, both common and decimal, is the 
basis of the work in this grade. Stress is laid upon the develop- 
ment of and drill in addition, subtraction, multiplication and 
division of fractions. 

In addition and subtraction we train the pupils to find the 
least common multiple first by inspection, then by factoring. The 
greatest common divisor is similarly taught when fractions are re- 
duced to lower terms. In multiplication and division of fractions 
much time should be given to rapid work in which one integral 
term is included. 

Treat decimal fractions, not as a subject new and distinct, 
but show that, since the relations between the orders of decimal 
fractions is identical with that between the orders of integers, all 
operations may be performed in the same manner as in integers. 

Very simple problems in interest are taught as an application 
of decihials. 

Text: Southworth and Stone, Arithmetic, Book II, pp. 68- 
96, 111-174. 

SEVENTH GRADE 
B Class 

The study of measurements occupies the entire semester. The 
topics considered are: Measurements of angles; of lines; of sur- 
faces, including rectangles (with application to land, flooring, roof- 
ing, carpeting, papering), triangles, and circles; of solids, including 
cubes, prisms, and cylinders. 



ARITHMETIC 33 



Text: Southworth and Stone, Arithmetic, Book III, pp. 
85-131. Sensenig and Anderson, pp. 139-161; 169-185. 
A Class 

The study of percentage, with application to profit and loss, 
interest, and commercial discount, is the work of the semester. 

All intricate problems are avoided, the aim being to bring 
about a thoro comprehension of the principles of percentage as 
applied to simple problems. The relation of percentage to common 
fractions is emphasized. To this end such per cents only as may 
be readily changed to common fractions are dealt with at first. 

Text: Southworth and Stone, Arithmetic, Book III, pp. 
131-161; Sensenig and Anderson, pp. 198-217; 220-228. 

EIGHTH GRADE 
6 Class 

The first six weeks are occupied with applications of percent- 
age, the advance work including commission, insurance, and taxes. 
The remainder of the semester is given to a study of means of 
saving and investing money, and of cancelling indebtedness. The 
topics included are : 

1. Banking — a study of the various kinds of banks, their 
purpose and safety, and the method of opening a bank account. 

2. Loaning money — promissory notes and review of interest. 

3. Stocks and bonds — a study of the organization and im- 
portance of corporations, the work of stock exchanges, difEerences 
between preferred and common stock, and between stocks and 
bonds. 

4. Paying and collecting money by telegraph, registered let- 
ter, post office or express money orders, checks, and drafts. 

A Class 

During the first six weeks teach square root and the metric 
system and review the topics previously studied. This review work 
may be continued during the remaining twelve weeks or algebra 
may be introduced. In algebra teach the interpretation of simple 
algebraic expressions, give simple work in the four fundamental 
processes and study the equation, employing it in the solution of 
problems previously solved by arithmetic. 



34 GEOGRAPHY 



GEOGRAPHY 

I. INTRODUCTION 

The value of any subject in the school course depends upon the 
extent to which it develops the powers of the pupil and prepares 
him for adult life by giving a practical education, not only prac- 
tical in the commercial sense, but also in the larger sense of the 
complete and harmonious development of the mind and body 
towards the realization of good character, right citizenship, and 
social worth. Hence we may define geography as the "relation 
of the earth to life." Measured by this standard the educa- 
tional value of geography is high. It makes for refinement, 
character, and a broad philanthropy by bringing the child into 
contact with the earth and the heavens and revealing to him 
the beauty and grandeur of the Creator's work and our depend- 
ence on his laws ; by explaining how these laws determine various 
environments .which in turn govern the occupations, the methods 
of life, and the mental and physical conditions of peoples the 
world over; and by showing how the consequent difference in 
productions brings about an exchange of commodities, and 
results in the interrelations of peoples and individuals, 
the dependence of one person on another, and the in- 
ter-dependence of all. It gives culture by acquainting the pupil 
with the ideas, institutions, and the culture of other peoples; and, 
like travel, for which it is a substitute, it tends to produce breadth 
of mind and liberality of thought. It develops a spirit of investi- 
gation and gives impetus to seek the truth. It is a valuable aid 
to other subjects, especially language work and reading, nature 
study, and history. It gives the pupil a fund of information that 
will make his life more full and useful and will subsequently prove 
of daily value in conversation, reading, and business. It makes 
the pupil feel at home in the world he lives in; and helps him to 
see that true citizenship is partnership in every good undertaking. 



GEOGRAPHY 35 



General References : 

Special Method in Geography, McMurry. 

New Basis of Geography, Redway. 

Course of Study accompanying text books. Dodge. 

Home Geography, McMurry. 

Excursions and Lessons in Home Geography, McMurry. 

International Geography, Mill. 

In the Journal of Geography: — The Importance of Geography 
in Education, James Bryce, Vol. I, pp. 145-51, 206-13. 

On Methods of Teaching Geography, T. G. Rooper, Vol. I, 
pp. 70-79. 

Home Geography, Davis, Vol. IV, p. 1. 

Oswego Geography Course, Farnham, Vol. V, pp. 109 and 211. 

Function of Geography in Elementary Schools, Bagley, Vol. 
Ill, p. 222. 

Geography in Intermediate Grades, Bagley, Vol. IV, p. 299. 

Correlation of Geography and History, Allen, Vol. II, p. 404. 

Training Teachers for the Study of Home Geography, Philip 
Emerson, Vol. I, pp. 391-400. 

Geography in Germany, The Primary and Secondary Schools, 
J. R. Smith, Vol. I, pp. 420-30. 

The Course of Study in Geography at the Speyer School, 
Teachers' College, Vol. II, pp. 83-95. 

Geographical Exhibitions; Their Value and How to Plan Them, 
A. De Riemer, Vol. II, pp. 136-44. 

Geographical Text-books and Geographical Teaching, M. K. 
Genthe, Vol. II. 

In Bulletin of American Bureau of Geography: — Educational 
Value of Geography Study, E. I. Miller, Vol. I, pp. 5-11. 

What to teach in Geography, Henry McCormick, Vol. I, pp. 
11-20. 

A Lesson Plan for the Study of a Natural Product, Clare L. 
Poe, Vol. I. 

Illustrative Lesson upon Latitude and Longitude for Fourth 
Grade or Above, Theda Gildemeister, Vol. I. 

A List of Books, Reports, and Articles Dealing with the Teach- 
ing of Geography, J. F. Chamberlain, Vol. I. 

In the Journal of School Geography : — A School Course in Geog- 
raphy, R. E. Dodge, Vols. IV and V. 



36 GEOGRAPHY 

II. SUBJECT MATTER 

PRIMARY GEOGRAPHY 

Primary geography, as we treat it, has to do with man's re- 
sources and adventures, in acquiring shelter, food, and clothing, 
as exhibited in the child's immediate vicinity. The child must re- 
Hve, to some extent, what man has done, to gain any understand- 
ing of his present complex environment. This knowledge is es- 
sential as a basis for an intelligent appreciation of the physical and 
political geography of the world, treated later in the grades. 

Necessity was the force that produced in man effective effort. 
The child feels no such motive, but his instincts of activity, imita- 
tion, and construction serve as incentives to the actual doing, es- 
sential in gaining a personal appreciation, of course crude, of man's 
problems and their solutions. 

Change is necessary to consciousness; it is when the child 
leaves his home life regularly each day to enter the larger and dif- 
ferent sphere of the school, that he gains his first clearly conscious 
conception of home relations and conditions. These are made 
evident and impressed through much of his work in the kinder- 
garten. In the primary grades he is ready for the beginning of 
a unified achievement along geographical lines, gaining in the first 
two years, increasingly definite conceptions of certain type forms 
of shelter, sources of supply of food and clothing, means of trans- 
portation, and of typical, concrete, natural objects and phenomena, 
which can appeal to him at this stage of his development. In the 
third year, he continues thru the study of distant family groups, 
that which helps him to interpret his later study of the world. 

I. NATURAL ENVIRONMENT 

FIRST GRADE 
September 

a. The sun : location at different hours (continuing in obser- 
vation and comparison of hours and position thruout the year) ; 
noting shadow of child at different hours as to length and position ; 
telling time (sun dials) ; horizon ; points of compass ; effects on chil- 
dren and other organic and inorganic life, heating: coloring, growth, 
killing of germs. b. Great dipper and north star: direc- 

tion ; change of position ; telling time; compass. c. Fall 

flowers: color; size; form; odor; habitat. 



GEOGRAPHY 37 



October 

a. Fire: need, ways of starting, uses, rising currents, winds. 

b. Birds: latest departure of summer birds; outlook for win- 
ter birds, c. Leaves: color, form, time of dropping com- 
pared with other trees. 

November 

a. Moisture: clouds, rain, fog, dew, steam (power), evapora- 
tion, condensation. b. Temperature: effect upon plants 
and animals; means of protection; thermometer. 
December (Time given to preparation for Christmas). 
January 

Freezing: crystalization (water, mineral); effects of freezing 
upon water, fruit, vegetables, soil; use of cellar, of refrigerator. 

February (Time given to celebration of its birthdays of great men.) 
March 

a. Soil: kinds, use to plants, effect of animals that burrow, 
clay products. b. Seeds: shape, color, contents, planting 

in glasses of water and in pots of earth. 
April 

a. Birds b. Goldfish c. Flowers 

Noticeable characteristics in appearance and habits. 
May and June 

School or market garden: food plants and seeds, effects of 
warmth and moisture on growth, continuing March work. 
General 

Year's history of certain trees, and butterflies. 

SECOND GRADE 
September 

Report on growth of plants of previous spring (visiting school 
garden), harvesting of garden produce and fruit; canning, drying, 
and storing. 
October 

a. Life histories of the cat and dog. Home life of the squirrel. 

b. Planting bulbs. 
November 

Habits, care, and value to man of horse, cow, and sheep. 
December (Time given to Christmas preparations.) 



38 GEOGRAPHY 



January 

Rocks: sandstone: origin; limestone fossils and story; quarry- 
ing, use. 
February 

Coal: uses, kinds, mining, storage, transportation. 
March 

Metals: copper, lead, zinc, iron, tin — characteristics, uses, 
sorting, mining, preparing for use. 
April 

a. Birds: return, where during winter, habits, food, effect on 
crops, use ; domestic fowls. b. Aquarium studies: crayfish, 

fish, frog. 
May and June 

a. Planting cotton, flax, tomatoes, and corn, in breakable 
boxes in soil that will not cake ; later transplanting to garden. 

b. Wild spring flowers. c. Fruit trees: flowers, leaf, 
fruit, enemies. 

General 

a. Year's history of certain trees and insects. 

b. Keeping weather record thruout year. 

II. ARTIFICIAL ENVIRONMENT 

FIRST GRADE 
B Class 

A. Shelter, food and clothing, as found in a typical house in 
the child's neighborhood, with constant reference to the child's 
own home. 

1. Value: a. Protection from weather. b. Protection 
from society. c. Providing convenience for the different 
activities of home life. 

2. Appearance and location: a. Material. b. 
Color. c. Size. d. Site: yard, neighbor- 
hood, relation to school, stores, neighbors, country; con- 
veniences in transportation, street cars, delivery wagons, etc. 

3. Divisions. 

a. Living room: 1. Use; physical comfort, social 
pleasure, reading, sewing, etc. 2. Furnishing; wall 

paper, curtains, rug, chairs, couch, table, book case, fire 



GEOGRAPHY 39 



place, etc. (Spinning and weaving are done here.) 
3. Associated lessons; care of room, courtesy to others enjoy- 
ing room, charm of story hour before the fire, etc. 

b. Bed room: 1. Use. 2. Furnishing. 3. 
Associated lessons; care of room, air at night, sunning, 
airing and making of bed; sleeping alone, etc.; care of day 
clothing at night. 

c. Bathroom: 1. Use. 2. Furnishing. 3. Associated 
lessons; care of hair, teeth, nails; bathing, etc. 

d. Dining room: 1. Use. 2. Furnishing. 3. Asso- 
ciated lessons; setting the table, serving, and courtesy at table. 

e. Kitchen: 1. Use. 2. Furnishing. 3. Associated 
lessons; cleanliness, value of boilingwater for purifying, use 
of refrigerator. 

f. Pantry or Basement: 1. Use. 2. Furnishing. 
3. Associated lessons; need of protection from cold for cer- 
tain foods, system in arrangement. 

Class 
B. Direct sources of supply for the home. 

1. Drygoods store. 

a. Stock,: (1) Kinds: (a) Cotton (b) Linen 
(c) Woolen (d) Silk (e) Ribbons, laces, embroideries, col- 
lars, gloves, etc. (f) Notions. (2) Sources of supply: Fac- 
tories. (3) Care: (a) For inspection, (b) For cleanliness, 
(c) For protection from moths, b. Conveniences: (1) Count- 
ers (2) Cash registers, etc. 

2. Meat market: treated similarly. 

3. Grocery store: a. Stock: (1) Kinds: (a) Vege- 
tables, (b) Fruits, (c) Dairy products, (d) Cereal products 

(2) Sources of supply: (a) Farm, (b) Factory, etc. 

SECOND GRADE 

A. Local sources of supply for the stores 

1. Farm: a. Products: (1) Cereals (2) Vegetables 

(3) Fruit (4) Live stock (5) Dairy products b Conveni- 
ences: (1) Buildings (2) Machinery 

2. Factories; a. Finished product b. Raw material 
c. Process of converting raw material into finished product. 

B. Vehicles used in transportation between farm, factory, 
store, and home 



40 GEOGRAPHY 

Method for all the primary work : 

1. Recalling child's experiences through questioning. 

2. Making excursion. 3. Reproducing in clay, sand, 
pasteboard, wood, etc. 4. Dramatization. 

References 

Elementary Geographies, King, Tarr, McMurry, Dodge; Com- 
mon Minerals and Rocks, Crosby; Systematic Science Teaching, 
Howe; Special Method in Elementary Science, McMurry (note bibli- 
ography) . 

THIRD GRADE 
(First World Spiral) 

The work pursued up to this point should have furnished the 
child with a stock of definite ideas regarding his own environment. 
Physical features, climatic conditions, the materials used for food, 
clothing, fuel, and constructing buildings have all been studied 
at first hand, while ideas regarding direction and distance, the or- 
ganization of home and community life have been developed. The 
child is now ready to learn of single homes beyond his own horizon. 
What method shall be followed? He is more interested in another 
child than in any other object. Therefore his imagination should 
center about the activities of child life. His imagery is controlled 
by objects immediately about him, but, when developed, his im- 
agination has almost as great an impelling power as objects from 
without. Hence, child-life in other lands becomes the next logical 
step. This can probably be best based on the stories of the "Seven 
Little Sisters" and "Each and All" by Jane Andrews. 

Tho Seven Little Sisters should really occupy more than a se- 
mester and Each and All can easily be done in less than that time, 
there seems no better way of dividing the year's work than to give 
each class one book. However, when a class completes the B work 
in midyear and remains in the same room for A work, the use of 
Seven Little Sisters may be continued in A ; but when the B work is 
completed in June, the field. should be covered, even if not so in- 
tensively done. A fall term A class should first review Seven Lit- 
tle Sisters, and all A classes can well afford to spend much time in 
supplementary reading upon the various topics arising in the work — 
(Spyri's Heide has been much loved by several classes). 

The work of each semester is divided into about eighty lessons, 
thus allowing extra time for seat work and for reviews. 



GEOGRAPHY 41 



B Class 

Text, Seven Little Sisters, Andrews 
Prelude and Ball Itself 3 to 5 days The Brown Baby 5 to 8 days 
Agoonack (needing less time when Eskimo life has been a prom- 
inent feature of the first and second grade work) 8 to 14 days 
Gemila . . 13 to 15 days Jeannette . 13 to 15 days 

Pense . . 9 to 12 days Manenko . 9 to 12 days 

Louise . . 13 to 15 days Summary ... 2 days 
A Class 

Text, Each and All, Andrews. 
Agoonack (many special topics here to be emphasized) . 12 days 
Manenko . . .16 days Gemila . . . 14 days 

Pense and Lin 14 to 20 days 

(One year this was made the basis of our closing entertainment, 
the children doing much toward its dramatization and in the mak- 
ing of costumes, i 

The Brown Baby 4 to 6 days Louise and Jeannette 18 to 25 days. 
As Miss Andrews does not definitely locate the home of these 
two sisters, and since Minnesota fulfils all the conditions described, 
we choose to make Louise and Jeannette more like real sisters — living 
in our own state. The pupils are thus introduced to those features 
of their state which pertain to the making of a home. They learn 
of the great pine woods whose healing breath cures many an in- 
valid, of the linnber furnished by these woods to the parents of 
Louise and Jeannette, and of the processes necessary to change 
these great trees into useful articles for the home. They learn the 
source of the flour which makes the bread eaten by these two girls, 
and the clay bed from which Jeannette makes her Christmas pres- 
ents leads naturally to a talk on the great Pipestone clay beds, 
famed in Hiawatha. These are a few of the many delights that 
the little Minnesota "sisters" indulge in, and to state the exact 
number of lessons is difficult. 

Summary 2 to 5 days 

References: For detailed daily outlines, aims, methods of 
teaching, and forms of seat and home work, see Gildemeister's Sug- 
gestions for Use of Seven Little Sisters and Each and All (In prepa- 
ration for press) ; Carpenter's Geographical Readers ; World and 
People Series; and special references for each locality as needed, 
e. g. : Arctic books by du Chaillu, Kane, Peary, Nansen; South 
African books by du Chaillu, Livingston, Stanley; William Tell for 
Switzerland; etc. 



42 GEOGRAPHY 

FOURTH GRADE — HOME GEOGRAPHY 

(Supplement all this work by numerous exercises.) 

1 . Direction and Distance — Plat in sand the school room 
and campus. Also route from home to school. Then map the 
same sections, studying general characteristics of simple maps. 

2. Study the home city and surrounding country as to 

a. Large Sections (The work in the first three grades has 
been upon the single home, store, farm, mill, etc. Here we are 
able to generalize) . Study residence section of city ; manufac- 
turing section ; business section ; suburbs ; truck farms ; grain and 
potato farms. 

b. Routes of Transportation and Locomotion — Trails, 
dirt roads, macadamized and paved roads ; street car lines, rail- 
road lines, boats on river (make maps). Study reasons for lo- 
cation, direction and character of roads. Show how they aid 
in interrelations of the home with nearby communities. 

c. Other Public Utilities — Telephone lines, electric light, 
sewer, gas, etc. — ^who pays for them; need; arrangement; study 
the same for public buildings, fire and police department, 
health department, parks, play grounds. 

d. Some of the problems of food and shelter as illus- 
trated in the home products and industries. 

(1) Garden products (Have school garden where chil- 
dren raise vegetables and flowers ; and see their relation to 
life. (2) Study farm products, animal and vege- 

table, and note the interdependence of and exchange be- 
tween farm and city, connecting this with necessity for 
roads and means of transportation. (3) River 

products, as fish, clams, etc. (4) Raw material 

for building, as lumber (its source, method of production, 
etc.); brick; stone; cement. (5) Fuel — Wood, 

coal, etc. 

A Class 

Take up more definitely the physical problems and features, 

and study in a more intensive way the typical occupations of the 

vicinity. 

1. The Land Surface, (a) Study slopes wherever they may 

be found (in gutters, in gullies, from the bluffs to the river, (b) Ir- 



GEOGRAPHY 43 



regularities of surface — hills, plains, valleys — location of city and 
of school with reference to these as determining features. 

2. Soils — Caused by the weathering and grinding of rocks ; 
necessity to all plant and animal life ; different kinds of soils and their 
adaptability to various uses (Illustrate all of this so far as possible 
by experiments and illustration. Test and learn to recognize dif- 
ferent kinds of rock from which different soils are made). 

3. Water — (a) The various forms in which it appears on top 
of the land. Gutter streams and rills; brooks; the great home 
river — Where does it come from, where does it go, its size, its im- 
portance in commerce, for pleasure, for support of the people 
thru food supplied ; its islands, bays, peninsulas, and other com- 
mon geographical forms ; its swamps and windings ; the lake — area, 
depth, origin, importance, (b) Underground water — wells, springs, 
etc. (c) Work of water — the general problem of erosion, sedi- 
ment in streams, how it gets there, what becomes of it, what are its 
effects (good and bad), how does it effect drinking water, how ero- 
sion has carved the valleys and slopes, and laid down flood plain; 
variation in erosion according to steepness of slope, filling and drain- 
ing of lakes (illustrate by sloughs). 

4. The Air — Experiments to prove the presence of air; its 
use; forms of water in the air; — rain, dew, fog, clouds, snow, ice; 
evaporation and the dewpoint. 

5. The Weather — Definite series of observations during one 
month. Summarize observations in simple rules. Note direction 
and velocity of winds. Construct weather vane; record precipita- 
tion; record kinds of days as to temperature, storms, etc. 

6. Intensive work on occupations. Show need for division of 
labor. Make chart of principal local occupations. Find how many 
of these are represented by parents of class. Study and illustrate 
the occupations as to character and result. 

7. More detailed work on distance, direction, and maps. 

FIFTH GRADE 

(Second World Spiral — Descriptive, culminating in simple causal 
principles — proceeding from consequence to cause.) 

Having become acquainted with child life in various lands, 
and having studied home life intensively, the work is now to de- 



44 GEOGRAPHY 

velop a picture of the world as a whole. Do this by moving out 
radially into distant regions through the agency of imported food 
or other products with which the child comes in contact. Make 
long leaps into distant regions (say to Alaska in search of the 
possible source of gold in a child's pin) ; then make a type study of 
that region on the basis of the product chosen, and work back to 
the proper home connection by natural transportation routes, filling 
in on the return trip the large features of the lands skipped over 
on the outward trip. Select products which will lead north and 
then south from home, gradually building up the heat belts. 

Have in mind continually that the final consideration here is to 
build up an idea of the simpler causal controls which have made 
the given region what it is. But do not give these at first. Deal 
descriptively with the consequence in the type study and gradually 
suggest the reason for the conditions found. These reasons will 
finally resolve themselves in certain elementary principles which 
the child is afterward to amplify and apply in the next great spiral 
(sixth and seventh years) which proceeds from cause to consequence. 
B Class 

Western Hemisphere. 
A Class 

Eastern Hemisphere, and summary of principles. 

Also add some work on shape and size and grand divisions of 
the earth. Show how this great ball which has an outside covering 
of gases (called air) is not standing still, but is spinning away in the 
sunshine like a big top, and is moving rapidly along a path which 
leads it entirely around the sun every year. Extend the knowledge 
of surface features; develop shape, referring to old ideas, and giv- 
ing proofs of present beliefs ; expand idea of size and relation to sun ; 
also deal more specifically with motions. Observe and record di- 
rection of sun at each hour of a certain day, also change in direction 
of shadow of post. Make sun dial. Record noon length of shadow 
of post on certain day of each week for semester. Spin a spotted 
ball to develop idea of axis, equator. With mounted globe and 
bright light (bicycle lamp) develop idea of day and night and of 
yearly motion. Recall seasons. Color a small globe to show heat 
and life belts ; also show this relationship by pictures of plants and 
dwellings in these belts. 



GEOGRAPHY 45 

Finally (1) let the child see the earth as a sphere of rock, cool 
without, but heated within, and so nearly covered by a layer of 
water called the ocean, that only one fourth of its surface rises as 
land. (2) Show this land area as so irregular that it appears to be 
in nearly separate parts called continents, which divide the water 
into separate oceans. (3) Leave the child with a collected series 
of elementary principles which explain life conditions as a necessary 
consequence of these physical conditions. 

Note — Do plenty of definite map reading in this grade. Also 
some free hand map sketching, and drill enough on location to fix 
the main continental features (oceans, continents, great divides and 
slopes, and a few important rivers and cities). 

SIXTH GRADE 

(Beginning Third World Spiral.) 
B Class 

The study of the geography of the eastern hemisphere, as seen 
from the casual standpoint, is the work of this grade. 

The beginning can be made by a review and application of the 
following topics : Mathematical geography — form of the earth, 
proofs; size of the earth, proofs; rotation, proofs and effects; rev- 
olution, proofs and effects; latitude; longitude. All these are 
to be illustrated by apparatus. 

Atmospheric circulation — location, causes, and names of 
planetary wind belts; conditions necessary to produce rainfall; 
causes operating in each belt, such as doldrums, low pressure areas, 
intercepting highlands, etc. 

Ocean currents — causes and effects. 

Vegetation zones — (See Herbertson's "Man and His Work," 
and map of life zones in Longman's Atlas.) 

After a brief study (six weeks) of the above topics, apply the 
principles learned to the eastern hemisphere, beginning with the 
simplest unit, which is Australia. Study from maps physical 
features and coast line, wind belts affecting it, distribution of tem- 
perature and rainfall, drainage. From this study infer the plant, 
animal and mineral products, chief centers of commerce and trans- 
portation routes; then verify by text and reference. Follow the 
same plan with Africa, emphasizing the chief products of the con- 



46 GEOGRAPHY 

tinent. Use the same method for the study of each of the three 
important countries of Asia. 

OUTLINE 

1. Australia . . . . . . .2 weeks. 

Continental study. Topical studies: Sheep raising, gold 
mining. 

2. Africa ....... 4 weeks. 

Continental study. Topical studies; Ivory, oil nuts, ostrich 
farming, dates, esparto, Nile valley products. Cape-to- 
Cairo railway. 

3. Countries in Asia . . . . . 6 weeks. 

India — wheat. China — tea. Japan — silk. 

Text : Tarr and McMurry. 

Supplementary : Dodge, Advanced Geography ; Carpenter, Ge- 
ographical Readers ; Herbertson, Man and His Work. 
A Class 

Eurasia from the causal standpoint. 

Study the land mass in a broad way, following the outline 
given under the study of Australia. After two weeks of general 
work, begin the study of special areas of Europe, starting with the 
simplest forms, such as Spain or the Scandinavian peninsula, and 
culminating in the British Isles on account of the vastness and com- 
plexity of the commercial enterprises of the British Empire. 

Study each country by the method given for the study of Aus- 
tralia, and continually relate its commercial activity to that of our 
own country. 

The sand table should be used continuously. If possible, 
model a country the way it would look if weathering and erosion 
had never affected it. Then by a fine spray of water reduce the 
topography to the present form. Mill's International Geography 
will give the needed information about the origin of each country. 

OUTLINE 

1 . Eurasia — general study .... 2 weeks 

2. Europe ....... 14 weeks 

Special topics to be emphasized in each country. 

a. Spain and Portugal: Wheat, olives. Mining 

of coal, iron, mercury. People. 



GEOGRAPHY 47 



b. Italy and Greece: Historic places. Wheat, 
silk, fruits. 

c. Russia: Soil and climate belts, wheat. Manu- 
facturing, mining. Possessions in Asia. 

d. Austria and Hungary: Mining, wheat, herds. 

e. Germany and Netherlands: Mining of coal, iron, 
zinc, salt, potash compounds. Manufacturing, transporta- 
tion. People. Rhine valley. 

f. France: Wheat, grapes, silk, chinaware. Paris 
and its manufactures. 

g. British Isles: Wheat, flax. Country estates. 
Manufactures. Cotton, iron, steel, ship building. Manufact- 
uring centers: Where? What? Why? 

3. Comparative review of continents ... 4 weeks 

Text: Same as B class. 

SEVENTH GRADE 
(Completion of Third World Spiral) 
The work of the seventh grade is devoted to the study of causal 
geography in connection with the western hemisphere. The sug- 
gestions for continental study given in the preface to sixth grade, 
will be followed in the study of North and South America. 
B Class 

1. North America as a whole. 

2. United States by groups, beginning with New England, 
since the Atlantic coast is the region of early English colonies, the 
subject of study in the history work of this class. In connection 
with the northern group of states an intensive study of our own 
state will be made. 

A Class 

1. North America continued in the study of Canada, Mex- 
ico, Central America and the West Indies. 

2. South America as a whole. 

3. States of South America in four groups 

a. Amazon Valley and Eastern Highlands. 

b. Orinoco Valley and Northeastern Highlands. 

c. La Platte Valley and Southern Plains. 

d. Andean Highlands. 

Texts: McMurry, Dodge, and Adams (Elementary Commer- 
cial Geography). 



48 HISTORY 



HISTORY 

I. INTRDOUCTION 

If this subject is to be made to yield all the value it is capa- 
ble of yielding, its possibilities in various directions must be com- 
prehended by the teacher. The aim as well as the method must 
differ with the age and the mental development of the pupils. At 
all stages, however, there will be a mingling of purposes: The 
stimulation of the imagination ; the building up of moral standards ; 
the stimulation of social habits; the establishment of the proper 
attitude toward the state; and the development of intellectual 
power. Naturally the emphasis upon these purposes will vary 
constantly. 

Even if our scheme of education were purely individualistic, 
i. e., looked only to the development of those powers of the child 
useful for promoting his personal profit or for the enlargement of 
his capacity for personal enjoyment, the subject ought to be in a 
course of study. It contributes to the development of mental 
qualities useful to the individual as such in every walk of life — 
to the development e. g. of the memory, of the power of discrim- 
ination, and of judgment. It is a culture subject; that is it takes 
the pupil out of his immediate surroundings, broadens his horizon, 
enlarges his experience of human life, and helps him to a better 
appreciation of the meaning of the every day facts of his own 
life. "The student," says Macaulay, "like the tourist is trans- 
ported into a new state of society. He sees new fashions. He 
sees new modes of expression. His mind is enlarged by the widen- 
ing diversity of laws, of morals, of manners." History opens a 
door to the enjoyment of literature since a knowledge of histori- 
cal facts is necessary to an understanding of constantly recurring 
allusions in literature. Here perhaps lies the justification for 
presenting many of the incidents made the subject of study. 



HISTORY 49 

History must, moreover, be looked upon as a preparation for 
other studies such as poHtical economy, civil government and 
other subjects which people may wish to study for the human 
interest 'they contain and the intellectual enjoyment they afford. 

But our scheme of education is not purely individualistic; it 
has or should have a distinct social bearing. The subject should, 
therefore, supply knowledge, give opportunity for practice in or- 
ganization, and produce an attitude of mind and heart useful to 
the individual not merely because he is a human being but be- 
cause he is a member of society, a citizen of a republican state. 
History is properly called one of the "citizenship" subjects, be- 
cause while knowledge of it may be regarded as a personal accomp- 
lishment, may open avenues to a larger life, and may give to 
those who study it an added power to deal with their private 
concerns, it has a special value in that the training it yields is 
just the kind needed by the citizen in performing his public duties. 
In dealing with public questions a citizen should have the power 
and habit of constructing into a whole, information gathered from 
various sources; of carefully discriminating between good and bad 
evidence; of making judgments where the evidence is sometimes 
incomplete and often conflicting; of following an argument from 
point to point and detecting its fallacies; and he should be able to 
approach such a study with perfect candor and fair-mindedness. 
For developing these qualities history has unbounded opportu- 
nities. No one lesson will offer an opportunity for training in 
all these respects, but on the other hand no lesson should ever 
pass without an attempt being made to cultivate some of these 
qualities. 

The study of history should result in something more than 
an accumulation of facts, in something more, even, than intellect- 
ual training. From it should come a strengthening of the moral 
fiber, and a growth of patriotic purpose. 

The moral influence of historical characters, as has often been 
pointed out, is frequently greater than that of the people whom 
children meet from day to day. The work of the lower grades, 
in building up right standards of conduct when dealing with either 
fictitious or historical characters, should be consciously continued 
by the teacher in the higher grades. This is not best done by 
"moralizing" on the part of the teacher. His effort should be to 



50 HISTORY 

make the stories carry their own moral. Usually this will be the 
most effective way of conveying a moral lesson. In the lower 
grades the qtiahties impressed as worthy of honor are personal 
qualities; heroism, devotion to one's fellows, unselfishness in ren- 
dering service, the effects of which can be seen at once. In the 
higher grades, while the simpler personal quahties mentioned will 
continue to be impressed upon the pupils, more complex civic 
qualities, the value of which is not so apparent, should be brought 
before the pupils. Such examples as the persistence of Colum- 
bus in the face of neglect and contumely; the aspiration of Ral- 
eigh and other Englishmen to enlarge the realm of Britain; of the 
French voyageurs to make a "New France"; of the Spaniards to 
make a "New Spain;" the self-denial and public spirit which lay 
back of all our wars, especially notable in the Revolution and the 
Civil War; the moral strength of Washington, John Quincy Adams, 
and others in undergoing the severest censure rather than yield in 
what they felt to be for the public good; the honorable position 
taken by these two presidents in regard to the civil service; the 
moral courage which led Clay to prefer to be right rather than to 
be president ; the noble spirit of concession which led to the settle- 
ment of the crisis of 1876, — these and a thousand other incidents 
in our history show what is worthy civic conduct and should 
rouse the admiration of pupils and furnish them an inspiration 
to emulate such conduct in their own lives. 

If the story of the country is well told, it cannot fail to in- 
spire a love for those who have given it its higher character, con- 
fidence in its principles, and a determination to preserve and pro- 
mote what is good and eradicate what is evil in our social and 
political life. This is patriotism. Do not let pupils suppose that 
patriotism consists in hating those with whom we have been at 
war, or in upholding all that the government has done, or in join- 
ing the army to fight the country's battles, though that is one 
way of showing patriotism. They should learn that the nation's 
greatest enemies are at home, in the persons of law-breakers of 
all kinds; of those who cheat the government; who use public of- 
fice for personal ends; who win their way by corrupting the ballot, 
legislatures, and the like. They should learn that the sort of 
patriotism needed is that which demands of them an intelligent 
interest in public affairs, local, state and national; which demands 



HISTORY 51 

of them considerable self-sacrifice in performing the duties of citi- 
zenship; which will require them, whether it is agreeable or not, 
to condemn in friends and enemies alike all that tends to degrade 
private and public life or work to the injury of the Great Republic. 

The history work falls into two periods. During the first 
period, covering the first five grades, the story, in which the life of 
the individual is the center of interest forais the material for study. 
In the earlier years the story is of chief value as a 'means of lan- 
guage drill or for the development of literary appreciation; but in 
the fourth and fifth grades it supplies material more and more 
useful for the real history study of the later grades. This real 
history work begins with the sixth grade when the center of in- 
terest shifts from the life of the individual to that of the nation. 

The course of study is based upon the belief that the most 
thoro work should be done upon the history of our own country. 
The history of the United States is therefore placed at the end 
of the course, where the children, many of whom will never have 
an opportunity to study the subject in the schools again, will 
have the advantage of maturity and previous study in approach- 
ing the history of their own country. The subject runs thru the 
seventh and eighth years. This is preceded by a year's work in 
the sixth grade on the outlines of English History and this, in 
the fifth year, with the story of the Greek and Romans. This 
arrangement has the advantage of preparing the way for a more 
understanding study of United States history. It enlarges the 
child's view of the great field of human life with which history 
deals; it acquaints him with institutions other than those with 
which he is surrounded and thus gives him a basis of comparison; 
it gives experience in following in outline great movements in the 
life of a people ; and gives him a truer view of the place of his own 
country in history. This arrangement of the course has a value 
independent of the use made of European history in the later 
part of the course. It acquaints him with something of the life 
of the three peoples who have made the greatest contributions 
to the world's progress; it furnishes in the lives of the characters 
studied nourishing ideals of private and public conduct; and it 
broadens the child's horizon. 

The purpose and character of the work naturally vary with 
the periods named, and even with the year. 



52 HISTORY 

The method also must vary, but it must always hold in mind 
two facts (1) That children get little out of generalizations, and 
that therefore the past must be constantly made real by the pre- 
sentation of much detail. This detail must be such as will natur- 
ally connect with elements of similarity or contrast in the child's 
own experience; it must make the past vivid and full of life-content. 
To say that "trade was interfered with" is not enough. The child 
wishes to know names of ports, of specific ships, of actual cargoes 
and voyages, with names of captain and crew. Other means of 
making the past real are pictures; construction; historical games; 
letters and diaries written by pupils but conceived as written in 
past historical periods; details from life of common people; litera- 
ture. 

(2) The second point to keep in mind is that mere lists of 
facts are dull and easily forgotten; but if organized about a great 
controlling principle they cling together by their own power and 
give a cumulative effect. To give lists of Dutch, French, Spanish, 
and English colonies with a few facts about each (such as date 
of founding, by whom founded, kind of government, etc.,) is un- 
interesting and unprofitable work. To study them all in their 
relation to the great problem of "A Struggle for a Continent," 
puts life and worth into the situation. 

In the first period (Grades 1 to 5) the pupils' work will be 
largely reproductive, but, even here, much should be done in de- 
veloping the history-sense by requiring consecutiveness of thought 
and expression, and completeness and balance in the story. 

These should be required also in the later period, and, in ad- 
dition, some constructive work should be insisted upon, as in 
drawing inferences, making modest judgments, and in weaving 
into one account the material gathered from various sources. 

References: — Special Method in History, McMurry; Teach- 
ers College Record, May, 1904, Suzzalo; ibid Marker; Studies in 
Historical Method, Barnes, pp. 75-105; Teaching of History and 
Civics, Bourne; Method in History, Mace; Report of the Committee 
of Eight; American History and Its Geographic Conditions, Semple; 
Teachers College Record, November, 1908 — Johnson's Adaptation 
of History to the Grades. 



HISTORY 53 

II. SUBJECT-MATTER 
FIRST, SECOND AND THIRD GRADES 
(introductory to history) 

A basis for history, which as a separate study is not taken 
up until the fourth grade, is gained in the primary grades thru 
the tales, myths, stories of heroes, patriotic poems and songs 
treated in Hterature, holidays, celebrations, etc. In the hand work, 
also, and in the stories of Hiawatha and Agoonack, primitive hfe 
is introduced. In the third grade, we also study the food, cloth- 
ing, houses, family life, religion, and government of the typical 
races — making constant reference to our own time. 

We read and discuss Robinson Crusoe for a knowledge of 
home life in its simple primitive conditions, for Crusoe's vague 
knowledge of things and his lack of skill make him childhke in 
invention. His simple, plain, fanciful tale of toil and hardship 
has worth as well as fascination, and is typical of man's constant 
warfare with, and final conquering of, nature. 

At times, "the method of handhng this narrative (Robinson 
Crusoe) before the class will be similar to that used in teaching the 
fairy tales. A simple and vivid recital of facts, with frequent ques- 
tions and discussions, so as to draw the story closer to the child's 
own thought and experience, should be made by the teacher. 
Much skill in illustrative device, in graphic description, in diagram 
or drawing, in the appeal to the sense experiences of the pupil, is 
in demand." 

The sand-table is especially valuable here. 

References: — Seven Little Sisters and Each and All, Jane 
Andrews; other geography references. Crusoe's Island, Ober; 
Robinson Crusoe, DeFoe. The Story of Ab, Waterloo. 

Texts: — Robinson Crusoe by McMurry; The Tree-Dwellers 
(when not used in second grade). Early Cave Men, and Later Cave 
Men, Dopp. 

FOURTH GRADE 

While in this and the succeeding grades, history is taken up 
as a separate subject, it has a close connection with other sub- 
jects, especially geography, literature and reading. 



54 HISTORY 

At this age the story is often told by the teacher and repro- 
duced by the class both orally and in written form. The dramatic, 
the personal, and the concrete are at the basis of the child's under- 
standing as well as of his interest. We use maps, sketches, pic- 
tures, and comparisons with home objects. "Not only are his 
(the teacher's) descriptions more animated, picturesque, colloquial, 
adapting themselves to the faces, moods, and varied thoughts, 
and suggestions of the pupils, but there can be a discussion of 
causes by pupil and teacher, a weighing of probabilities, a use of 
the blackboard for graphic drawing or diagram, a variety of home- 
ly illustrations, and appeal to the children's previous experience 
and reading such as is impossible in the mere memorizing of a 
book." 

But, whenever possible, texts are put into the children's 
hands so that they may learn how to get facts from the printed 
page, how to judge relative values of points given, and how to 
organize these for retelling. 
B Class. 

Early Colonial days ; pioneer life in any section of our land, tho 
emphasis is laid on local history, selecting material from stories 
of Hennepin, La Salle, Marquette and Joliet, General Sibley, the 
Sioux Massacre, Minnesota in the Civil War, and Governor Ramsey. 

Texts: Stories of Colonial Children, Pratt; Stories of Great 
Americans for Little Americans, Eggleston; Pioneer History Stories, 
McMurry. 

References : 

1. Material — Colonial Children, Hart and Hazard; Heroes 
of the Middle West, Catherwood; De Soto, Marquette, and La Salle, 
Pratt; The Discovery of the Old Northwest, Baldwin; American 
Leaders and Heroes, Gordy; Concise History of Minnesota, Neill; 
The History of Minnesota and Tales of the Frontier, Flandreau; 
Minnesota, Folwell; Winona and its Environs on the Mississippi in 
Ancient and Modern Days, Bunnell. 

2. To help teachers — Value of Hero Stories, Helen Ford 
Staples; How to Tell Stories to Children, Sara Cone Bryant; AHce 
Morse Earle's books. 

A Class 

Leif the Lucky (1000), Columbus (1492), Cortez and Monte- 
zuma (1519-21), Cliff Dwellers, De Soto (1539), Coronado (1540), 



HISTORY 55 

Raleigh (1584), John Smith (1607), Henry Hudson (1609), Wm. 
Penn (1681), Oglethorpe (1733), Boone (1769), Crockett, Rob- 
ertson, Lewis and Clark, George Rogers Clark, Fremont and Car- 
son, Discovery of Gold (1849). 

Texts: Viking Tales, Jennie Hall; America's Story, I and II, 
Pratt; Great Americans for Little Americans, Eggleston; Pioneer 
History Stories, McMurry. 

References: The Story of the Thirteen Colonies, Guerber; Our 
Country's Story, Tappan; Hero Stories, Tappan; Household History 
of the United States, Eggleston; History of the United States, 
Fiske; Four American Pioneers, Perry and Beebe; Cortez and Mon- 
tezuma, Pratt; Discoverers and Explorers, Shaw; B IV, references. 

FIFTH GRADE 
B Class 

I. Story of Hebrews (six weeks) : Adam and Eve, Abraham, 

Joseph, Moses, Naomi and Ruth, Saul, David, Solomon, 
Daniel, Jesus. 

References: The Bible; Young Folks' Bible History, 
Yonge; Old Stories of the East, Story of the^Chosen People, 
Guerber; Stories of the Olden Times, Johonnot; Moral Instruc- 
tion of Children, Felix Adler; Telling Bible Stories, Houghton; 
Story of the Jews, Hosmer. 

II. Story of the Greeks (12 weeks) : 1. Story of the Gods; Zeus, 
Poseidon, Apollo, Orpheus, etc. 2. The Age of Heroes ; 
Trojan War, Ulysses, etc. 3. Historical Age; early 
Sparta and Athens, Lycurgus and Solon, Olympic games, 
Persian wars, Pericles, Alcibiades, Socrates, Alexander. 
4. Great things which Greece did for the world; her writers, 
architects, artists, orators; etc. In the study of the 
Greeks, the regularity and simplicity of their lives is em- 
phasized; also their love of the beautiful. Language supple- 
ments this work and hand work is used to illustrate many 
phases of Greek life. 

Teacher's Text: Greek Gods and Heroes, Harding. 

References: Story of the Greeks, Guerber; Story of Odyssey 
and Iliad, Church; Greeks and Persians, Cox; Ten Great Events, 
Johonnot; Wonder Book, Hawthorne; Old Greek Stories, Baldwin; 
Plutarch's Lives; Age of Fable, Bulfinch; Stories of the Old World, 



56 HISTORY 



Church; Life of the Ancient Greeks, Gulick; Old Greek Life, Ma- 
hafEy; History of Greece, Botsford. 
A Class 

ROMAN HISTORY 

The purposes of the course in Roman history which is taken 
in this class are to cultivate the natural interest of children in 
heroic men and brave deeds, to illustrate the faults and virtues 
of Roman character, to give familiarity with important events 
and famous incidents, to leave the impression that war is a brutal 
way of settling disagreements, and to leave an impression of the 
Roman "spirit of conquest, the capacity for organization, for law, 
and for government." 

OUTLINE 

I. Introduction: 1. Connect with Greek History; for example, 

— What were Romans doing when Alexander set out against 
Persians? 2. Associate with the geography of Italy 

and Rome. 3. Show pictures of ruins of Rome. 

II. Kingdom of Rome: 1. Romulus, the founder. 2. Numa, 
the lawgiver. (Give stories, incidents, and descriptions 
to show primitive nature of Romans.) 

III. The Republic: 1. Struggle to establish it. Tarquin at- 
tempts to become king; Lars Porsena aids him; brave de- 
fense — Horatius ; Courageous act of Mucius ; Roman sense of 
justice — Cloelia. 2. Division of people into two 
classes; a. Causes. b. Names of classes. c. Early 
results ; injustice to plebeians , estabHshment of tribunes. 

3. Continued struggle to expand power: a. Leaders: Cori- 
olanus ; the Fabii ; Cincinnatus ; Camillus. 4. Written 

Laws: a. Need for them; how published. b. Re- 

sults : their place in the education of boys ; effect on the con- 
dition of the plebeians , effect on the development of law. 
5. Growth checked — ^The GauHsh Conquest. 6. New 

Rome : a. Protected by Camillus. b. Improvements 

made. 7. Period of Conquest: a. The Conquest of 

Italy. b. Wars with Carthage; conquest of Sicily, of 

Carthage, Hannibal's Campaign in detail. c. Con- 

quest of other Mediterranean countries. d. The Con- 

quest of Gaul; Julius Caesar. 8. New Problems for 



HISTORY 57 

Rome ; a. Home conditions needing reform — The Gracchi. 

b. The Civil Wars; what they were about, results. 

c. Changes in Roman character, customs; home and home 
life; school life; dress. 

IV. The Empire: 1. Establishment of the Empire. 2. The 
age of Augustus Caesar: a. Great Writers- Virgil, 

Horace. b. The life of the people — in detail. 

3. Period of weakness: a. Misgovernment by 
weak rulers. b. Civil war: Causes; results; people 
of all provinces made citizens; better rulers. 

4. Reign of "five good emperors:" a. Trajan, 
b. Hadrian. c. Marcus Aurelius. 

5. Period of civil strife: a. Results: Empire divided 
by Diocletian; strong rule checked strife. 

6. Empire united under Constantine; a. First Christ- 
ian emperor. b. Constantinople was built. 

7. Downfall of Empire; a. Divided. b. Plun- 
dered by barbarians. 

8. Christianity: a. Christ, the founder: Born in 
Augustan Age ; put to death by succeeding Roman emperor. 
b. Growth of: Favorable conditions; a united Roman world; 
teachings spread by apostles — Paul; persecutions by Romans 
— causes, results ; Rome accepts Christianity ; Emperors be- 
come Christians — Constantine the Great; Christians increase 
rapidly in numbers and in power. 

Text : The City of the Seven Hills, Harding. 

References: Young Folks" History of Rome, Yonge; Private 
Life of the Romans, Johnston; Story of the Romans, Guerber; 
Young Folks' History of the Roman Empire, Shepard; Historical 
Reader, Anderson; Ancient History, West; Great Events of His- 
tory, ColHer; History of Rome, Botsford; Ancient History for Young 
Folks, Botsford. 

SIXTH GRADE 

The work of this grade is the outHnes of English history. 
More fully than heretofore the pupil is able to connect events with 
causes, to enter into community life and feeling, and to study 
movements as well as men. Attention is called to the historical 
importance of geographical and climatic conditions, of economic 



58 HISTORY 

changes, of movements of population, and the Hke. The text- 
book very properly groups the events narrated mainly about a 
few great men. But care has to be taken that the pupil gets more 
than the story of the person and the dramatic side of the event. 
The significant part of the Norman Conquest is found, not in the 
personality of the conqueror or in his battles, but in the introduc- 
tion of new race elements, and in the modification that followed 
in social and political life. The "Story of Henry and Becket" 
tells, not merely of a spectacular quarrel, but gives a glimpse of a 
great struggle between the nation and the church. "The Story 
of Drake" is that of one of the builders of England's power upon 
the sea; the "Story of Spinning and Weaving" has an added inter- 
est when the pupil is made to see, even imperfectly, that it is vital- 
ly connected with the story of the "Great Reform Bill." 

It is easy to attempt too much in such an outline study as is 
here intended, but the pupil should be able to grasp some of the 
threads that give unity to England's story — to follow the progress 
of the English from a group of loosely connected tribes to a com- 
pact kingdom, and the growth of this kingdom into a great em- 
pire; to get some idea of England's contribution to the world's 
welfare in developing the principle of representative government 
and in promoting personal liberty and protecting personal rights; 
and he should be able to appreciate the energy and force of char- 
acter which have made the English the foremost people in the 
world. An opportunity of fixing the hold on some of these threads 
of England's history is found in the review by bringing together and 
organizing the children's knowledge on such subjects as the fol- 
lowing : The growth of English territory ; the race elements of the 
English people; how the kingdom was formed and became strong; 
relations with other countries, as Ireland and Scotland; England 
and the Continent, including its efforts to maintain the balance of 
power; the growth of the baron's power; steps in the rise of the com- 
mon people ; relations between church and state ; changes in indus- 
tries; industrial reforms. 

While the story of England has in it ample enough means of 
culture to justify its place in the course of study, it is also valu- 
able as a preparation for the study of United States history. Its 
value in this respect lies in enlarging the historical experiences of 
the pupils; in the practice given in following, in outline, historical 



HISTORY 59 

movements; and in building up such a back ground for American 
history that the pupils will see their own country in truer per- 
spective. 
B Class 

I. Relation of the geography of England to its history. Com- 
pare with the geography of Rome and Italy. 

II. Ancient Britain; 1. Celtic; a. Tribes: Gaels; Britons. 

b. Primitive nature of people. 

2. Roman: a. Cruel and tyrannical rule. b. Re- 

sults of Roman occupation: roads, fortifications, forts. 

c. Homes and life of the people. d. Christianity 
checked by persecutions. 

III. English Conquest: 1. Angles and Saxons, Teutonic tribes, 
conquered Britons: a. Their union under Egbert. b. 
Alfred, the most noteworthy Saxon king: his laws, trans- 
lations, navy. c. Christianity established — its ef- 
ects. d. Effects of the conquest on language; 
government; sense of liberty. e. Social and indus- 
trial changes. 

IV. Danish Conquest: 1. Brought new vigor and a spirit of 
independence into the life of the country. 2. Danes, 
with Angles and Saxons formed the Anglo-Saxon people. 

V. Norman Conquest: 1. William of Normandy gained throne 
of England. 2. Results: a. Introduced a 
more progressive spirit. b. Improved the language, 
c. Established feudal system of landholding. d. Eng- 
lish and Norman peoples fused into English nation. 
e. Changed mode of life. f. Religious conditions; 
cathedral building. 

VI. Rise of Enghsh Nation: 1. Reign of Henry II (Planta- 
genet) : a. Power of king established over the barons, 
b. Struggle between Church and Nation begun: Becket, 
Constitutions of Clarendon. c. Reforms in adminis- 
tration of justice; courts of justice established, trial by jury. 

2. Reign of Richard I.; a. The Crusades were center 
of interest; a study of the Third Crusade. Results of the 
Crusades: new ideas brought from East, power of feudal 
lords weakened. (For conditions of society see Ivanhoe). 

3. Reign of John :a. Misrule weakened power of king. 



60 HISTORY 



b. Results: Great Charter was obtained which recognized 
rights of common people; strengthened power of barons; 
strengthened power of church. 

4. Reign of Henry III.: a. The weakness of the reign. 
b. Reforms led by Simon of Montfort. c. Common peo- 
ple obtained a voice in Parliament. 

5. Reign of Edward I. : a. Wales and Scotland .con- 
quered, b. Parliament became a representative legislative 
body. c. Customs tax introduced. 

6. Reign of Edward II.: a. Scotland regained indepen- 
dence; Bannockburn; Bruce, Wallace. 

7. Reign of Edward III.: a. Rise of English commerce; 
woolen factories established. b. Beginning of Hundred 
Years' War with France; united English people more firmly, 
strengthened power of Parliament. 

8. Reign of Richard II. : a. Rebellion of the peasants 
gained more freedom for the peasants and laborers. 

VII. Destruction of Feudalism: 1. War of the Roses — Barons 
against barons. a. Reign of Henry VI. b. Reign of 
Edward IV. Printing was introduced by Caxton; English 
language was unified. c. Reign of Richard III. End of 
War. Results: power of lords destroyed. 

Text: Stories from English History, Warren, pp. 1-165. 
A Class 

VIII. The Absolute Power of the Crown. 

1. Reign of Henry VII. (Tudor): a. United factions in 
country. b. Established a strong government, c. Amer- 
ica discovered. 

2. Reign of Henry VIII. : a. King ruled absolutely. 

b. England severed her connection with Pope. King became 
head of Church in England. 

3. Reign of Elizabeth; a. Protestant religion was es- 
tablished, b. Great age of English literature — Shakespeare. 

c. Trade and exploration increased — Drake; Raleigh. 

d. Social life. 

IX. Rise of the People's Power against the King's Power. 

1. Reign of James I.; a. People demand religious free- 
dom, Pilgrims settle in America. 

2. Reign of Charles I.: a. Struggle between king and 



HISTORY 61 

nation. Petition of Right granted by king; the Civil wars. 

3. The Commonwealth. OHver Cromwell. 

4. Reign of Charles II.: a. Restoration of king as the 
ruler. b. Dissatisfaction with ruling power. c. Plague 
and Fire of London, d. Great literary workof Milton. 

5. Reign of James II.: a. Revolution .against rule of 
King independent of Parliament and law. 

6. Reign of William III. and Mary II.: a. People gained 
political liberty from absolute rule of king. 

7. Reign of Anne: a. House of Commons becomes the 
ruling power. b. Duke of Marlborough upheld English 
power, c. Parliaments of Scotland and England united. 

X. Government by the People. 

1. Reign of George I . : a. Prime Minister and Cabinet appear. 

2. Reign of George II. : a. Wm. Pitt, Earl of Chatham, 
an honest Prime Minister. b. Power of Great Britain ex- 
tended: In India — Clive and Hastings. In North America: 
Growth of the Colonies; Conflict with the French; Wolfe. 

3. Reign of George III.: a. Ireland united with Great 
Britain. b. The loss of the American colonies. c. War 
with France: Pitt, the statesman; Nelson and Wellington. 

commanders. Results: Increased power on land and sea; 
peace for Europe; Napoleon in exile. d. Industrial im- 
provements: Spinning and weaving; steam engine and 
locomotive, e. Reforms: In jails — John Howard; slave 
trade — Wm. Wilberforce. Slavery in the colonies abolished. 

4. Reign of William IV. : a. Great Reform Bill: Se- 
cured representation of people in Parliament. 

5. Reign of Victoria — Democratic Era: a. House of 
Commons became true representative of people ; the ruling 
power in nation. b. Power abroad maintained; Crimean 
War; Indian Mutiny suppressed. c. British colonies: 
Canada, Australia; South Africa; control over Egypt and 
India. Explorations in Africa, Livingston. 

6. Reign of Edward VII. 

7. The British Empire; the greatest empire in the world; 
how governed; its elements of strength. 

Text: Stories from English History, Warren, pp. 166-462. 



62 HISTORY 

References: Handbook of English History, Guest; Source 
Book in English History, Kendall; Stories from English History, 
Church; Story of King Alfred, Besant; Child's History of England, 
Dickens; Historical Reader, Anderson; England's Story, Tappan; 
Story of the EngHsh, Guerber; Social England, Trail; School Atlas 
of English History, Gardiner. 

SEVENTH GRADE 

The pupil conies to the study of history in this grade with a 
considerable fund of information concerning persons and events, 
and with a more or less definite idea of the course of the nation's 
development. In adding new information to the old, the effort 
is not simply to increase the number of detached facts in the mind 
of the child, but to aid him in appreciating the facts of a higher 
order, and in interpreting them. While certain kinds of informa- 
tion will be made secure only by frequent drills, care is taken to 
avoid mere memory work. Appeal is constantly made to the pu- 
pils' understanding. 

A few of the salient points upon which emphasis is laid are 
the following: (1) Our colonial history is less the history of the 
United States than it is of Europe. It is, properly viewed the story 
of the colonial expansion of various European countries. From 
that point of view, the children watch the progress of the Spanish, 
as step by step they become acquainted with, and acquire control 
of, one region, the French of another, the English of another and 
so on. The story of the revolt of the English colonies, which closes 
the year's work, is not only the story of the way a new nation was 
brought forth, but also of the way England lost the choicest of her 
colonial possessions. (2) There were certain forces at work in the 
home countries, certain causes operating to send forth a stream of 
emigrants to the new world. These forces determined the char- 
acter of people who came out and they, in turn, largely deter- 
mined the kind of colony established. (3) The climatic and other 
physical conditions in the new world determined the course of 
settlement, and, with the English especially, the character of their 
institutions in part. The waterways as well as coast indentations 
were of vital importance in determining where populations should 
settle, and they were frequently contended for by opposing^na- 



HISTORY 63 



tions. (4) The European countries were not left to expand at 
will in the new world. From the beginning there was a conflict 
for the mastery of the continent. By 1763 the outcome of the 
conflict had been practically settled by the elimination of the 
Swedes, the Dutch and the French; but the end of the story has 
perhaps not yet been written. The latest phases of the struggle 
are the pushing of Spain out of the West Indies, 1898, our acqui- 
sition of Porto Rico 1898, and the retention of important rights 
in Cuba, and the more recent acquisition, 1904, of rights in the 
Canal Zone of Panama. A thread, therefore, running through 
our whole history is the progress of English speaking peoples in 
acquiring control of North America. Children are led to see the 
vital, logical relationship between the settlement at Jamestown, 
which gave the English their first permanent foothold on the con- 
tinent, and all later acquisitions of territory. (5) The character- 
istics of social and industrial life in the different sections of the 
colonies are easily within the comprehension of the pupils and are 
given prominence. (6) For classifying and interpreting facts, it 
is helpful to look at history in "periods." The pupils are helped 
to gain an understanding of what constitutes a period, and to make 
such divisions of the story of particular colonies, or groups of colo- 
nies as will enable them to get the sense of movement, of progress, 
in history. 
B Class. 

Exploration and Colonization. 

Text: — School History of the United States, Mace, pp. 1-117. 
A Class. 

The Struggle for North America. 

The Struggle for the Rights of Englishmen. 

The Struggle for the Rights of Man. 

Text; — School History of the United States, Mace, pp. 117-198. 

References: — Stories of the Great Republic, and Stories of 
the Thirteen Colonies, Guerber; Our Country's Story, Tappan. 

EIGHTH GRADE 
B Class. 

The first half of the year begins with a study of certain con- 
ditions and tendencies in the colonial period which have a special 
bearing upon the governmental problems confronting the country 



64 HISTORY 



at the close of the Revolution. This study includes a rather care- 
ful examination of government of two or three of the colonies just 
prior to the revolt , the relations among the colonies and with Eng- 
land, and the development of the idea of union. This serves as a 
preparation for a study of the new state governments, of the 
confederation, and finally of the federal union. The development 
of the country under the Constitution to the first election of Lin- 
coln, constitutes the main work of the half year. 

Text: — History of the United States, Mace, pp. 198-337. 
A Class. 

The second half year begins with a review of the events lead- 
ing up to the civil war. The advance covers the period from 1860 
to the present time. Special attention is given to the political 
events of the war, to the progress of "reconstruction" after war, and 
to the problems growing out of that war, that still remain unsettled. 

What is said above concerning the work of the seventh grade 
is also applicable here. The greater maturity of pupils of this 
grade enables them to do stronger work than heretofore; and the 
importance of the period requires it. The order of the text book 
is in general followed, but the matter found there is on many sub- 
jects insufficient for inquiring pupils. Other texts and larger 
books of reference are drawn upon, including some original mate- 
rial. Familiarity with the Constitution is gained by constant ref- 
erence to it. Thus the composition of Congress and modes of 
election are best learned in connection with the organization of 
the new government under the constitution, the mode of electing 
a president is best studied in connection with those elections about 
which there is some peculiarity, e. g. that of 1800-1801, or 1824- 
1825. To understand the trouble over the "midnight appoint- 
ments" it is necessary to make a brief study of the judicial system 
provided by the Constitution ; and so on with the use of the treaty 
power, the admission of states, the acquisition of territory and the 
Hke. 

After the ground has been covered in something like chrono- 
logical order, various phases of history are taken up by way of 
review. Among the topics for such review are the following: The 
Territorial growth of the United States; growth of population; 
the various important tariffs; development of transportation; the 
slavery question; political party history and the admission of 



HISTORY 65 

states. Another useful fbrm of review is found in the prepara- 
tion of brief biographies to show the relation of the characters 
studied to the various movements of their times. 

Text: — History of the United States, Mace, pp. 337-end. 

References: — How to Study and Teach History, Hinsdale; 
Method in History, Mace; Pathfinder in American History, Gordy 
and Twitchell; Guide to the Study of American History, Channing 
and Hart; Report of the Committee of Ten, pp. 162-201; Report 
of the Committee of Fifteen, pp. 252-7; The Study of History in 
Schools, being the Report of the Committee of Seven, of the 
American Historical Association, especially pp. 158-172; The 
Teaching of History and Civics, Bourne, especially chapters v, ix, 
XVIII and xix. 



66 NATURE STUDY 



NATURE STUDY 

The outlines for Nature Study published in the Manuals of 
1903 and 1907 are still the basis of our work. No attempt is made 
to follow them in full in any of the grades, but from the list of 
topics the teachers select from^time to time those which they can 
use in geography, in drawing, in language, and in stories. We give 
no definite separate period to Nature Study as such, yet in a quiet 
far-reaching way it has a strong influence upon our standpoint 
and upon the subject matter used in many periods. 

See, especially, the geography work of Grades I, II, and IV, 
and note that every excursion is as truly Nature Study as it is 
Geography. Tho the third grade geography is of another charac- 
ter, every story there studied contains material which inspires a 
deeper love for all that is found on this great round ball we call 
home. 

References: — Nature Study, Jackman; Systematic Science 
Teaching, Howe; Object Lessons, Longman; Nature Study and 
Life, Hodge; Nature Study and the Child, Scott; Object Lessons in 
Elementary Science, Vol. 1-3, V. T. Murche; Forestry of Minnesota, 
Greene; Minnesota Plant Life, McMillan; Handbook of Birds, F. M. 
Chapman; Practical Zoology, B. P. Colton; Outdoor Studies, Need- 
ham; Ants, Bees, and Wasps, Lubbock; Lessons in Plants, L. H. 
Bailey; Butterflies, S. H. Scudder; Botanical Series, Newell; Les- 
sons in Botany, Gray; The Nature Study Idea, Bailey. 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION 67 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION 

I. INTRODUCTION 

If we define education as a training for life, a moment's re- 
flection discloses physical education as the foundation of the whole 
structure. For the interdependence between the physical, mental, 
and moral natures is so close, and the boundaries so undefined, 
that exact separation seems impossible. Therefore while physical 
education is concerned primarily with the growth and development 
of the physical child, it is also the conditioning factor in all educa- 
tion, in that there must be physical completeness before we can 
hope for mental or moral completeness. Because educational 
authorities have re-awakened to these facts, physical education is 
again assuming its deserved importance among educational inter- 
ests. But it comes now in a new aspect, for, while the physical is 
emphasized, and means are taken to secure physical growth and 
perfection, the latter are not regarded as ultimate ends. These 
lie, rather, in the mental and moral natures which we know are 
quickened through the physical, and which with the physical make 
the perfect whole human being. 

With this view of the province of physical education we may 
make all of our efforts in this field center around the one thought, — 
health. The department might well be called the department of 
health. And yet we aim to get health, not merely for its own sake, 
but rather for that which it makes possible, and which is not found 
if health is lacking. For we define health as organic efficiency — 
the condition when the individual feels most capable of doing and 
accomplishing. It is then that his powers are most keen, his senses 
most responsive. 



68 PHYSICAL EDUCATION 

That man must now consciously strive for health is due to 
changes in his animal habits which have made it impossible to trust 
to anything but definite direction as a means of maintaining right 
conditions. To give these directions, and to furnish incentives and 
means for their realization in the life of each child, is the work of 
physical education. As a school factor, it first of all aims to make 
the school environment conducive to the health of the child. Care- 
ful attention is given to proper ventilation, lighting, heating, and 
sanitation of the school room. The school rooms are fitted with ad- 
justable chairs and desks in order that there may be made a hygi- 
enic adaptation to the requirements of the individual child. The 
school program is carefully tested by physical requirements, peri- 
ods of work alternating with periods of relaxation ; heed is given to 
length of time spent upon each subject so that undue strain and 
fatigue may not occur; and recesses are provided for free and spon- 
taneous play. In all ways, we aim to keep our school free from the 
possibility of the accusation that it is a menace to the life and health 
of the growing child. 

But, as has been suggested, we teach health to the child rather 
than morbid physiology or scientific anatomy, which he neither 
understands nor is interested in. Health being mainly the practice 
of hygienic habits of daily living, we aim to impress upon the child 
certain maxims and principles which it should be his duty to culti- 
vate and follow, that he may be stronger, better, and more capable 
of enjoying life and of doing things. This instruction is informal in 
method, there being no text below the eighth grade. The teacher, 
by suggestion and informal talk, correlates this with other interests 
and activities of the child, so that it becomes to him a real subject 
and part of his daily life. 

The school, in taking the responsibility of educating the child, 
feels it should know just what material it is purposing to handle. 
It may be the child is not physically able to receive the instruction 
provided, in which case instruction is wasted and the child not only 
is not benefited, but may possibly be injured. A child afflicted 
with adenoids, defective sight or hearing, can receive only dulled 
and blurred impressions which cause the mistakes and blunders 
which have too often been set down to stupidity. By an in- 
dividual biologic examination of each child, made upon his entrance 
into the school, a knowledge of his physical condition is obtained. 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION 69 

If from the tests made of eyes, ears, throat, and nasal passages, 
physical defects or abnormalities are found, parents are advised, 
that steps may be taken for the removal or alleviation of the same. 
In addition, there are recorded certain physical measurements in- 
dicative of the child's growth and development, and observations 
are made for round shoulders, fiat chest, crooked spine, and bad 
posture. This work is in the hands of the director of physical edu- 
cation, acting with the assistance and advice of the school physician. 
The last division in the field applies directly to the motor ac- 
tivities of the child. Thruout the elementary school he is passing 
thru stages of physical growth and development when movement 
is his body's main need, and the craving for it his foremost instinct. 
Action is the law of growth, and if denied or hampered, the organ- 
ism is sure to suffer in some of its parts. It is frankly acknowledged 
that school, as an organization, lacks too entirely opportunities 
whereby the child can and ought to expend his motor energy. The 
gymnasium supplies in part this lack. Not only to satisfy hygienic 
requirements, but sound pedagogical reasoning as well, the work on 
the gymnasium fioor is justified as forming a vital part in the educa- 
tion of the child — both in its subject matter and its method of 
presentation. Action is the child's first and, for some time, only 
form of expression. Ideas grow and strengthen only as they have 
opportunity to be expressed. In the nature of the activities steady 
progression is observed, corresponding to the developing changes 
in the child's physical and mental growth. The activities in the 
gymnasium are, for the most part, taken from the child's own 
world, closely allied to his interests and former experiences, — ma- 
terial which he already knows, can understand, and in which he can 
grow. Plays, games, and folk dances form a large part of the pro- 
gram. In the plays and games there is material which not only 
gives the child the needed opportunity to express and delight him- 
self in movement, but also as supervised work in the hands of the 
instructor it is the means of developing such social, ethical, and in- 
tellectual qualities as are required to play a good game, and play 
it fair. The folk dance is of historic and cultural interest, repre- 
senting a primitive form of expression still employed among certain 
foreign folk. This type of exercise conduces to grace of movement, 
and is delightful to the child, satisfying the dramatic instinct and 
love of rhythm. 



70 PHYSICAL EDUCATION 

It has seemed wise to retain certain formal exercises involving 
large movements of the trunk and limbs for hygienic and corrective 
reasons. These are graded as to difficulty in execution and amount 
of co-ordination required, involving steady progression. In the 
earlier grades, the movements are representative, so far as possible, 
of forms of life known to the child. Marching, varied in type as 
suited to the different grades, is used as valuable in maintaining cor- 
rect posture in standing and walking, in drilling the body to answer 
quickly to command, and in satisfying an inherent sense for bodily 
rhythm. 

While from the gymnasium activities strong neuro -muscular 
control develops, it is remembered that the gymnasium period is 
in part one of relaxation for the child, and close demands upon his 
nervous system as a form of training are avoided. Much of the 
work is done to the accompaniment of music, which contributes to 
the joyousness of action, and leads to the development of the aes- 
thetic in the child. 

In addition to the exercises already mentioned, there is some 
apparatus work, light in nature and carefully supervised to avoid 
all danger of strain and injury. Swimming is taught, not only as 
a valuable exercise for all round development, involving mental and 
moral as well as physical qualities, but because it is believed man 
should be master of his body in all environments — in water as 
well as on land. 

After the sixth grade the boys and girls work in separate classes, 
which seems advisable because of the marked organic changes ap- 
pearing at this time. There follows a general outline of the work 
in the grades. 

Note. Because of the necessity for keeping the number of 
pupils evenly distributed, the school is this year divided into six 
divisions and the kindergarten, as follows: 

Kindergarten. 

First division, first and second grades. 

Second " third and B fourth grades. 

Third " A fourth and B fifth grades. 

Fourth " A fifth and sixth grades. 

Fifth " seventh grade. 

Sixth " eighth grade and review class. 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION 71 



II. SUBJECT-MATTER 

FIRST DIVISION 

a. Marching. This is informal in nature, with few commands 
and no attempt to force the child to keep time or step. 

b. Free Hand Movements. Large fundamental movements of the 
trunk and limbs are mainly involved. Forms of life and ac- 
tivities known to the child are imitated, thus keeping the work 
allied to his interests. 

c. Games and Plays. These occupy the largest part of the pro- 
gram. The games are in the main unorganized, non-com- 
petitive, and non-co-operative, appealing to the dramatic and 
imaginative interests, rather than calling for skill. The chil- 
dren run and jump for the mere pleasure of the activity, rather 
than for any outside end to be gained. Certain singing games 
and games set to music form an elementary exercise in rhythm 
preparatory to the later folk dances. 

SECOND DIVISION 

a. Marching. Slight progression from work done in the first di- 
A^sion — children are held to keeping step and gradually ac- 
quire the facings and easier movements. The marching is 
mainly in column form, correct posture being obtained by sug- 
gestion rather than direction. 

b. Free Movements. These are still recreative in nature, as in the 

first division — movements are used as suggested by the chil- 
dren, exercising creative instinct. Some apparatus work is 
introduced — light in nature, such as rope climbing and swing- 
ing. 

c. Games and Folk Dances. The games are more organized — 

certain rules and limitations in playing are observed. An op- 
portunity is given for individual work, as in "Tag" and "Fol- 
low the Leader." Imitation is still a strong force. Particu- 
lar care is taken to avoid fatigue. Simple folk dances are in- 
troduced. 

THIRD DIVISION 

a. Marching. Graded introduction of step positions and figure 
formations, with closer insistence upon quick response. 



72 PHYSICAL EDUCATION 

b. Free Hand Movements. Beginning to be more formal in nature, 
but still related to the child's other interests. Light work con- 
tinued on such apparatus as the stall bars, rings, and ropes. 

c. Games and Folk Dances. An increase is made in amount of 
skill demanded, while there is less appeal to the dramatic and 
imitative instincts. Social games beginning to be introduced, 
games where there exists competition between groups. 

FOURTH DIVISION 

a. Marching. Flank and column marching introduced. Rules 
given for good bearing in posture and walking. 

b. Formal Gymnastics. Apparatus work included ; movements be- 

come more localized, and greater insistence is made upon cor- 
rectness of execution. Attention is now paid to technique. 
An appeal is made to the child's reasoning powers to hold his 
interest in the exercises. 

c. Games and Dances. The group work is more highly organ- 
ized. The child is encouraged to increase his skill in doing that 
which has become to him an apparent means for gaining a 
desired end. More rules and regulations govern the games to 
satisfy the child's rapidly growing reasoning powers. This 
seems a particularly apt time for the dance work, as the child 
has not yet come to his self-conscious period, while his dramatic 
instinct, which finds expression in the dance, is still with him. 

FIFTH AND SIXTH DIVISIONS 

A distinction is made in the nature of the work as adapted to 
the sexes, the boys and girls being in different classes. 

a. Marching. For the boys the type of marching is distinctly mil- 
itary in commands and formations. Quick bodily response as 
a mark of bodily control is enjoined. For the girls the march- 
ing consists rather of fancy steps and formations. 

b. Formal Work and Gymnastics. In the localized, definite move- 
ments which are used, there is required a closer co-ordination 
and finer exactitude of execution than in the earlier divisions. 
Movements are vigorous, but not long-sustained, as this is a 
period of easy fatigue for both boys and girls. Great care is 
observed in all exercises to avoid strain and over-taxing. As 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION 73 

it is a time of vital changes, the exercises are planned more par- 
ticularly for hygienic and corrective purposes. Track work 
forms a feature for the boys particularly. 

Games and Dances. The games now involve specialized team 
work in which the individual is becoming subordinate to his 
group. Play has become a discipline to mind and body. Such 
qualities as self-control, unselfishness, obedience, and a sense of 
fairness have become the necessary qualifications for "playing 
the game." In the case of the girls, particularly, the element 
of competition is guarded lest it lead to serious mental or phys- 
ical strain. For them the aim is rather wholesome fun derived 
from moderate exercise. 



74 REVIEW CLASS 



REVIEW CLASS 

I. INTRODUCTION 

The review class is primarily a class in which pupils of irregular 
grade preparation, but of some maturity are trained. Pupils hold- 
ing eighth grade diplomas, who are unable to enter the normal de- 
partment, and others capable of doing eighth grade work but not 
suited to forming a part of the regular eighth grade, are admitted 
to some section of this class. While, normally, a pupil is not re- 
quired to enter the review class after he has finished the eighth 
grade of our elementary school, there are occasions when this is 
necessary, (1) when the immaturity of the pupil makes it ad- 
visable for him to do additional work for a period before his en- 
trance to high school or the normal department, (2) when for one 
period of six weeks between the close of our half year in the ele- 
mentary school and the beginning of the spring term in the normal 
department, we urge our eighth grade graduates to take the work 
of the review class rather than remain out of school until the open- 
ing of the spring term ; and (3) since the High School has an enter- 
ing class only in September, when our eighth grade pupils complete 
the work in mid-year, they are advised to form a special class or- 
ganized for their accommodation, the work of which is adapted 
to their needs. 

The time required for completing the work of the review class 
depends largely upon the nature of the previous preparation of the 
individual, the degree of his maturity, and his power to do inde- 
pendent thought -work. At the opening of each term in the normal 
department (once in three months) , tests are given and pupils who 
show sufficient power of application and ability to do independent 
thinking are permitted to enter the normal department. 

The work done in the review class varies widely in the different 
divisions of the grade, and from year to year, but is essentially a 
complete review of the subjects taught, with special emphasis upon 



REVIEW CLASS 75 



organization of subject matter, seeing of relative values and rela- 
tions, and upon training in independent work. Accordingly, topical 
recitations, outline work, and reference readings are emphasized. 

II. SUBJECT-MATTER 

ARITHMETIC 

The aim is to secure absolute accuracy, reasonable rapidity, 
thoughtful concentration, and general inforaiation. Proficiency in 
the use of the essential processes being necessary, not only because 
in business life a large majority of the problems involve them, but 
also because no satisfactory work in mathematics in the higher 
grades can be done without this foundation, the first work of the 
year is given to a careful, vigorous, thoro review of reading and 
writing numbers; addition, subtraction, multiplication, and di- 
vision of integers, of common and decimal fractions; denominate 
numbers ; mensuration ; simple percentage and simple interest. Then 
topics of general informational value, including commercial dis- 
count, taxes, insurance, commission, stocks and bonds, banking, 
square root, and the metric system are studied. 

Texts: Under advisement. 

References: Committee of Ten, Methods in Mathematics, 
Dewey and McLellan, Psychology of Number, chap. XV, Percent- 
age; McMurry, Special Method in Arithmetic; Smith, Teaching of 
Elementary Mathematics; Young, The Teaching of Mathematics. 

GRAMMAR 

In the study of grammar, thought analysis is made the basis in 
the belief that technical EngHsh has a place in the elementary 
school only so far as it assists in ready and clear interpretation of 
thought, or as it affords a working knowledge of the best usages of 
the language that becomes instrumental in securing correct and 
more effective spoken or written English. Careful attention is given 
to oral and written work incidental to all subjects. Where other 
work permits, a distinct class in composition is organized. Here 
a study is made of the paragraph and of the simpler forms of letter 
writing, narration, description, and argumentation. Story telling 
and memorizing of poems are encouraged. 



76 REVIEW CLASS 



Texts: Grammar, under advisement — See Pa/t II. Composi- 
tion, Gilbert and Harris. 

References: Chubb, The Teaching of English; Carpenter, 
Baker, and Scott, The Teaching of English; Hinsdale, Teaching of 
the Language Arts; Buehler, Practical Exercises in English; Dye, 
Letters and Letter Writing; Spaulding, The Problem of Elemen- 
tary Composition. 

At different periods of the year, according to the needs of the 
class, work may be given in geography, history, or civics, all of 
which are so closely connected that the work of each should re- 
inforce that of the others. 

GEOGRAPHY 

The study of geography in this grade should have a practical 
value in the giving of information which every intelligent person 
should possess, a sociological value in showing the interdependence 
of men, and a general value in leading to the development of power 
in seeing relations and interpreting situations and facts. The work 
consists of a review of practically the whole subject. Much refer- 
ence work is done. 

Texts : Dodge and Tarr and McMurry. 

References: McMurry, Method of the Recitation; Parker, 
How to Teach Geography; Arnold, Waymarks for Teachers; 
Geikie, Teaching of Geography; George, The Relation of Geogra- 
phy and History. 

HISTORY 

The chief objects emphasized in the study of history in this 
grade are training in seeing the proper relation of cause and effect ; 
teaching of certain governmental principles ; and developing appre- 
ciation of the worth of moral strength, of the labors of our ances- 
tors, and their legacy to us. The work consists of a new view of 
the whole subject of American history and seeks to organize the 
material into large units. 

Text: Mace's History of United States. 

References: In addition to those given under General Ref- 
erences; Harrison, The Meaning of History. 



REVIEW CLASS 77 



CIVICS 

The work done in this subject is based upon the notion that all 
education should prepare the individual for community Hfe. Ac- 
cordingly, we give some understanding of the nature and meaning 
of life in a community and of the relation of the individual to it. 
Thruout the course ethical values are emphasized and the work is 
given as much local significance as seems wise. Much reference 
work is done. 

Text: Dunn, The Community and the Citizen. 

References: See preface to text regarding aim and method 
of course; Bourne, Teaching of History and Civics; Small and Vin- 
cent, Study of Society. 

READING 

In the reading work of this grade the aim is to gain power in 
understanding the thought of the printed page, to increase the vo- 
cabulary, to train the voice, and break up habits of slovenly and 
careless speech, to cultivate the emotional side of the pupil, and 
to develop a taste for good literature. Relatively more tim.e is 
given to specifically intensive reading than to extensive work, while 
about half the time is used for such a combination of the 
two as the interests of the class seem to demand. 

Texts: Masterpieces of American Literature; Shakespeare, 
Julius Caesar and Merchant of Venice; Lamb, Tales from Shake- 
speare; Eliot, Silas Marner; Scott, Lady of the Lake; Dickens, 
Christmas Carol; Hale, Man without a Country; etc. 

References: Hinsdale, Teaching the Language Arts; Mc- 
Murry, Special Method in Literature and History; McMurry's Spe- 
cial Method in Reading of Complete English Classics; Hueys' Psy- 
chology of Reading ; Clark, How to Teach Reading in Public Schools ; 
Arnold, Reading, How to Teach It; Chubb, The Teaching of En- 
glish; Carpenter, Baker, and Scott, The Teaching of English. 

SPELLING 

Regular lessons are given in spelling. The lists are taken from 
the text books used and from actual mistakes in written work. 
Frequent dictation exercises, diacritical markings, and the use of 
words in sentences are important. Stress is laid upon the teaching 
of the spelling lesson. 



78 NEW FACULTY MEMBERS 

PHYSIOLOGY 

The prime motive in the teaching of this subject is the acquir- 
ing of knowledge necessary to the care and health of the human 
body. Accordingly, special attention is given to a study of foods, 
exercise, ventilation, and like topics. 

Text: Hutchinson's Laws of Health. 

MUSIC AND DRAWING 

These subjects are taken with the eighth grade, the work be- 
ing adapted to the needs of both divisions and much individual 
work being necessary. 



LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 79 



PART II 

LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

I. INTRODUCTION 

A study of the aims of language work emphasizes the fact 
that it should seek to give expression to the child's experience as 
it actually is. Language work carries a magician's wand of three- 
fold power: it gives the child firm foothold from which he may- 
take his next step upward; it throws the light of self-knowledge 
among the shadows of that chaotic self whence his personality 
struggles to emerge; it finds for him a voice which hastens his 
social birth and sets him with his fellows and of them, not merely 
among them. Each of the three is of vital import to the child's 
progress. 

At almost any point in his development his power may be 
stunted by a growing disproportion between his experience and 
his expression. This disproportion may be comparatively harm- 
less up to a certain limit ; when that limit is reached it is paralyzing. 
Crudity of expression on one plane becomes crudity of thought on 
the next higher; one can think and feel somewhat in advance of 
his power of expression, but that distance is limited. Inadequate 
language development in early years thus works incalculable harm 
to later thought, but so subtly that it is often impossible to sift the 
induced from the native imbecility which makes barren the years 
of thought. Nor does the blighting effect of cramped expression 
desolate the narrow field of thought alone; its frost blackens a far 
wider and richer area of consciousness than that; delicate percep- 
tions die away, fragile aspirations droop, yearnings toward the 
high fade to dull commonplace, for lack of developing expression. 
How many an appeal falls on deaf ears because the emotion that 
could have given it answer died of solitary confinement in an 
unexpressed childhood! How vainly do we build ideals as dwell- 



80 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

ings for our youths when the feelings on which we must found 
them have never known greater substance than is given them by 
a surge of hazy emotion! How well for his later growth had they 
been defined, hardened, made usable, by embodiment in objective 
form! In thought and feeling alike the higher must find foothold 
in the lower; how needful then that each higher in its turn shall 
.gain form and firmness for the sake of that higher still which 
looks to it for support. Language work gives substance to the 
child's new acquisitions; it is in this the handmaid of his progress. 

This supplying of starting places for new reaches is not the 
only function of language work. The child knows his thought 
better after he has expressed it, much as he sees an object truer 
after he has drawn it. The scrutiny of his thought Vv^hich precedes 
expression reveals new values, results before unseen, defects be- 
fore unfelt; and he will as surely know his feeling in a new way 
when he has projected it in words. New lights and shades emerge 
as he studies to give it to another truly. He seizes his fluid ex- 
perience and struggles to imprison it in words thru a bewildering 
variety of shapes, until, like the old man of the sea in the hero's 
clutch, it lies at last in his grasp in its true form. Nor is this all; 
self-knowledge is self-correction. Let him but learn the lineaments 
of his thought v/ell enough to chisel out its likeness in words and 
he will straighten many a twist; let him learn the soul of his feel- 
ing well enough to breathe its life into words and he will strangle 
much that is ignoble and extravagant. Language work, then, 
leads him to know that mystery which is his self; and it is in this 
the handmaid of his betterment. 

But the fullest worth of the individual comes not thru self- 
advance nor yet thru self-knovNi^ledge, but thru his ^touch with 
others. Sympathies, faiths, keep silence within us, dumb in the 
fear of distortion by a garb of unaccustomed words. If the worst 
were that clumsy expression merely concealed the thought, one 
might risk it; but it mocks at it. And who will see his dBepest 
self don the fool's mask? Anything that will uncover these hidden 
values is of great worth ; and the power to clothe the inner reality 
in clinging folds of wording which shall reveal its true outlines, 
makes actual, stores of potential worth within us. Language work 
seeks in this way to free the child's social energy; it is thus the 
handmaid of his social value. 



LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 



This, then, is the triple aim of our language work: to crystal- 
lize, to illumine, to share, the child's true self. What bearing has 
it on the selection of subject matter? Its demand is obvious. The 
work must seek to give expression to the child as he is ; his thought 
it must be, not his teacher's that he expresses; his feelings as they 
are, not as we wish they were; his language work must reflect his 
actual self, to-day as he is to-da}^ to-morrow as he then is. He 
will not be helped to think a step in advance by stumbling thru 
the organization of a thought that never was his, or grow rounded 
and sane in feeling, by an insincere effort to say what he never has 
felt; he will be no more at home in himself by rambling wordily 
afield thru a content foreign to him; and efforts to handle words 
and foiTns for their own sake but bury deeper under habits of in- 
sincere speech the path from his inner self to revealing expression. 
A study of the aims of language work thus puts emphasis on our 
first practical maxim; the subject matter of every lesson must be 
not only within the range of the child's experience, but actually 
present in it, when expression is demanded. 

Our second practical maxim flows from a study of the need 
met by expression. One speaks to be heard; this is set forth alike 
by the theory of speech and by the practice of the great masters 
who have enriched human life with noble literature. The only 
reason for writing at all is to share ; this demands that the child be 
set the conscious task of arousing in another the perfect counter- 
part of his thought, feeling, experience. His paragraphing is 
tested by the way the subject lies in his own mind; his sentences 
by their skill in giving the content to another in its true relations, 
his words by the truth of the impressions created. Every rule 
good writing asks him to observe has been evolved by such striv- 
ing and can be given him in response to his own sharp need. The 
content is the life; the form the outer garment, shaped by what it 
clothes. The outer but reflects the inner; the inner demands the 
outer. If, then, you Avould mould the child's expression, look to 
those forces which brought language into being; the vitality of 
the thing to be communicated and the creative necessity of sharing 
it. Thence is derived our second practical maxim: Pressure for 
form must be exerted by the content thru a motive for sharing that 
content. 

The acceptance of these principles in theory brings us face to 



82 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

face with the question of detail in practice. How shall we apply 
these maxims to the separate items of the technique of expression? 
We find two things essential to the successful using of the energy 
of the content: (1) There must be a variety of flexible language 
forms at the child's command, and (2) his language resources of 
word and form must be trained to respond not to the teacher's 
call for one form or another, but to the call of his own thought — 
of the thing he has to express. We try to work from within, out; 
to push the children to a new form by the impetus of the content, 
exacting a true image of itself. Words are multiplied in response 
to the child's need of expressing a sharply defined idea; punctua- 
tion becomes a means of showing his readers the adherences or 
separations of his thought; paragraphs mark its articulations; and 
varied sentence forms are forced upon him thru a content demand- 
ing their use. 

The subtlety and complexity of language work makes the 
definiteness of purpose, essential in all teaching, especially impera- 
tive in the language hour. To insure definitely progressive work, 
the teacher must have a clear idea not only of what is to be accom- 
plished in her own grade, but of its relation to what precedes and 
follows, and she must keep these three points of view ever in mind. 
To aid the teacher in obtaining an easy grasp of this triple task, 
an analysis of the development of each separate element of lan- 
guage-control — vocabulary, punctuation, paragraphing, sentence 
variety — is here set down to supplement the analysis of the work 
by grades which follows. 

Vocabulary work runs thruout all the grades with more nearly 
even stress than does any other part of language work, yet it will 
be useful to note likenesses and differences. The one thing that 
is alike in all vocabulary work is that new words are given the 
child in response to a definite need. Wordstudy apart from actual' 
use affects the child's reading vocabulary, but is of slight value 
elsewhere. Even to require him to put into a sentence words thus 
studied helps but little, for the sentence thus produced is the re- 
sult of no real effort to share a thought ; it is purely formal. From 
the first grade to the ninth, then, words are to be supplied when 
exigencies of writing or speaking demand them. 

The differences in vocabulary work from grade to grade are 
the result of two distinct phases of the child's development: 



LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 83 

(1) The child's experience continuously broadens and deepens. 
Children of all ages are word-poor ; that is, they lack words to express 
experiences actually theirs. In all grades, then, direct naming of 
things, of their attributes, activities, and parts, of relations, of 
feelings, must be constantly carried on. In the earlier grades 
these can usually be supplied by the skilful teacher in 
connection with other work but from the third grade on 
whole lessons are occasionally needed for this purpose. Com- 
parison of objects is useful here, e. g. an apple with an orange, 
3rd grade, a peacock with a hen, 4th grade, the actions and post- 
ures of a listening Indian with those of a boy playing, (5th and 6th) 
Hawthorne's face with Carlyle's (7th and 8th). Construction 
work, no matter in connection with what work it is carried on, 
should also be utilized by the teacher with full realization of its 
language value. As soon as the child can grasp large and com- 
plex undertakings, descriptions of activities around him furnish 
the need for a host of new words. An example of this sort of 
work is a chronicle of the steps in the erection of some public 
building, with measurements, materials, processes, accurately given. 
Abstract ideas should be carefully examined, made definite, and 
supplied with a vocabulary, as they appear in a child's thought 
life. This work assumes growing importance from the sixth 
grade on. The child should be guarded, on the one hand, against 
the fatal habit of being willing to say things in recitation which 
have no meaning to him, and, on the other, against the danger of 
losing his grasp on an idea for lack of a w^ord to pin to. The thing 
to be insisted on in all this word collecting is that the words sup- 
plied be those called for by the child's experience. A long word 
is as good as a short one, an abstract one as a concrete one, if the 
child has real use for it. 

(2) The child grows from the desire to use language as mere 
self-expression into the desire to use language as a tool in his social 
life. 

Both sorts of speech are present in every grade and should be 
differently handled. The prime thing for the teacher to secure in 
self-expressive speech is spontaneity ; the prime thing to be obtained 
in social speech is clearness — not dry-as-dust dictionary correct- 
ness, but accuracy in creating the exact impression desired, whether 
on intellect, feeling, or both. Spontaneity is secured through in- 



84 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

terest, much unhampered practice, and stimulation of the imagina- 
tion; clearness thru the habit of measuring the effect of what one 
says on his hearers. 

In the earlier grades much opportunity for the free play of 
the language instinct is offered. Words are supplied steadily but 
as unobtrusively as possible. There is little attempt to make the 
child critical of his language : the thing desired is to have his thought 
run freely, to exercise his spontaneity, and keep it full and fresh. 
Examples of exercises for this purpose are the free retelling of 
stories which have interested the child, unhampered accounts of 
adventures and pleasures, and purely imaginative work, in which 
not even the check of fact is put on the child's flow of language. 
In the first two grades this last exercise may well take the form of 
make believe dreams. The children may close their eyes for a 
short time, to let the play of imagination go on unchecked, and 
then tell whatever riot of ideas took place in their minds. Third, 
fourth, and' fifth grades like imaginative stories, either without any 
starting point, or starting from a picture, a proverb, or a half -told 
story. Sixth, seventh, and eighth grades enjoy, in addition, the 
writing of plays and stories which develop favorite episodes or 
dramatic situations, suggested by their other studies. Some op- 
portunity for the free working out in language of the child's imagi- 
native life must be carefully provided for in every grade. In all 
this work words are to be supplied generously but quietly by the 
teacher. 

Even in the lower grades, however, the teacher must be ever 
watchful to mould the social speech which the child is already 
using, and when opportunity arises, whether it be in the language 
hour, in another lesson, or in play hours, it should be met by using 
the social situation to help the child get the effective wording. 
Examples of this incidental work are (1) the assumed misunder- 
standing of an inaccurately worded question or statement, or of 
obscure directions for pla3dng a game in which the teacher joins 
the children ; and (2) the writing of invitations to some school func- 
tion, in which time and place must be made clear. In the third 
grade the social motive is applied to whole series of lessons, e. g., 
the class may together prepare a story or present a dramatization. 
But while the work as a whole is now consciously directed toward 
affecting others, and is thus a basis for later self-critical word- 



LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 85 

study, there is no conscious choice of words, no examination of the 
effectiveness of this word as compared with that. In the fourth 
and fifth grades some beginnings are made in selecting words with 
a social purpose, an example of which is the following: Let each 
child be given a short story to read and retell to the class. Let 
him decide where the most interesting point is, and how he wishes 
to make the class feel at that point. Let him then make a list of 
words which he thinks will be useful in creating that impression. 
The stories must, of course, be new to the class. In the sixth 
grade this discrimination between words becomes a conscious 
matter, and much discussion and testing of the effect of a word or 
combination of words opens the way to a large increase of dis- 
criminated words. This work is now given more and more em- 
phasis in the, language period, — the free expression of the child's 
personality being incidentally, but therefore all the more care- 
fully, provided for elsewhere. Along with this subjective testing 
of word values by the child's own meaning, is carried the testing 
of them by external facts — in such exercises as the above men- 
tioned record of the new building's progress. In the seventh and 
eighth grades the critical attitude toward words has become more 
nearly a settled interest; and it is carried into the vocabulary of 
such relations as are used in history, geography, etc. Such work, 
however, must not exclude more vivid and concrete work in word 
study, which is needed in the higher grades as well as in the lower. 

Paragraphing has for its object to make it easy for the reader 
to grasp the relations of the parts of the writer's thought. Profit- 
able work in paragraphing, then, obviously presupposes two 
things in the child; a conscious social purpose in his writing, and 
the ability to detect the relations of his own thought. These two 
requisites for the effective study of even the simplest paragraph- 
ing are reasonably well developed by the time the average child 
reaches the sixth grade and it is therefore in the sixth grade that 
we introduce the study of paragraphing and develop the para- 
graph sense. It is important that definite instruction in para- 
graphing be left to the grade to which it is assigned; but the nec- 
essary preparatory work should be clearly understood by teachers 
of the grades below, and carefully done. 

(1) The child should come to his work in paragraphing with 
the habit of considering his hearers.' The gradual transfer of em- 



86 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

phasis in the language work, from satisfaction in expression for its 
own sake, to criticism of it for the sake of others, has been already 
pointed out. Every teacher should be conscious of just how far 
this change has gone in each child, and should see that each tend- 
ency is properly developed. 

(2) To analyze his own thought the child must have (a) a 
sense of it as a whole, and (b) a sense of relations between its 
parts. He should come to his study of the paragraph with these 
appreciations well developed. Even in the first and second grades 
work should be done to make the child realize when he has finished 
his story, explanation, or dream. In the third grade the fact that 
what he says has a beginning and an end should be brought into 
consciousness; he should learn to consider the beginning and to 
round off the end. Here, too, the child should begin to strive for 
continuity of thought in his stories, keeping the order of events 
with conscious care. This is the beginning of a sense of the rela- 
tion of the parts to each other and to the whole. In the fourth 
and fifth grades the child may even begin to receive much of his 
subject matter with some attention to its organization — e. g., he 
may be provided with an outline of the stories told in history and 
geography, and follow the topics as they are presented; but he 
should not attempt outlining himself except as in planning for 
recitations and story telling he may find it useful to jot down 
points he wishes to cover, for reference. He should be encouraged 
to plan what he wishes to say first, what second, etc., and even to 
select the most dramatic points of his stories for special emphasis, 
as has been already suggested in connection with word-study. 
This is, ot course, loose thought organization, and is easily followed 
by the definite paragraph study in the sixth grade, as described 
in the course of study. The seventh and eighth grades, must foster 
and refine the paragraph sense by constant care in holding the 
child to organization of his recitations, and by occasional lessons 
following the methods used in the original development of the 
subject. 

Sentence Study simply carries the study of thought-organiza- 
tion into a smaller unit, hence all the work preparatory to the study 
of the paragraph is preparatory to this work. In addition, a sen- 
tence has a certain total effect; it is flowing, crisp, suggestive of 



LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 87 



joy, or of sorrow, etc., in the mere sound of it. The child must 
learn to use this sound effect of a sentence to reinforce the meaning 
gathered from its words. 

Analysis shows that this total effect is largely a matter of musi- 
cal elements, alliterations, rhythms, vowel quantities, etc. It is 
not desirable that the child consciously attend to these matters at 
any period in the grades, but the teachers of all grades should un- 
derstand them clearly, and see to it that the child's ear is trained 
to catch the effect, though he does not analyze its causes. 

Reading of poetry and beautiful prose, searching for the 
way of saying things which will make a dramatization the 
most effective, writing simple poems in grades where such 
work is profitable for other reasons, are valuable in such 
training. Moreover, since to change a sentence form is always 
to change its musical qualities, all work which multiplies the num- 
ber of ways a child may say a thing, helps prepare him for his sen- 
tence work. As early as the third grade it is profitable to devote 
an occasional lesson to drill in varying the form of a sentence-ele- 
ment; e. g., — the color of the apple, the apple's color. As the 
vocabulary work becomes more critical, it merges by insensible 
degrees into the sentence work, since the place of a word in the sen- 
tence is often more important in determining values than is the 
word chosen. Often, too, the vocabulary work deals with phrases 
and clauses instead of single words, thus involving the whole sen- 
tence. 

Punctuation should be taught as an integral part of written 
expression; as a tool to make the written work easy to read. This 
means that only the simplest problems in punctuation should be 
handled in the lower grades. The capital and period should be 
given with the first written work ; but it is to be noticed that since 
the constant correct use of the period means that a child is con- 
scious of the thought as a separate unit, it is not a matter of dis- 
couragement if he is slow to master it. We must expect both the 
backward child and the child of very rich experience to be slow 
to become perfect in this matter. A good drill in helping children 
to feel the limits of a sentence is to read interesting stories, having 
them make some sign when the sentence-end is reached. Quota- 
tions may be drilled upon in the same manner. Commas are not 
much needed before the fifth and sixth grades, when their use re- 



LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 



quires some drill, being presented always as a means of marking 
off units of thought or of preventing misapprehensions. Para- 
graph indentation should be handled as one sort of punctuation, 
since its purpose is just that of the punctuation marks. 

The apportionment of subject matter among our grades is 
controlled by the principles set forth above. If effective language 
work is to reflect the child as he actually is, it is manifestly useless 
to give him any technical work which the kind of content compos- 
ing his real self does not require for its embodiment in words. 
There is no value for him in a given list of words before his content 
demands them, or in punctuation in advance of the needs of his 
own thought, or in paragraphing before his thought begins to take 
on articulations. Our present apportionment we believe to be 
sound in its large divisions and we are testing its every detail with 
earnest watchfulness. Readjustments of detail will be made 
wherever and whenever practical work shows they are needed, 
and there will always be elasticity in our course, that each teacher 
may fit his work to the personnel of the class he is handling. 

The work which fills the language hour in the first and second 
divisions can not always be called language work, if language work 
be defined as direct effort to improve the technique of expression 
in words; but as a preparation for later more technical v/ork it is 
most essential. All our language work falls under two heads : 

Work to bring to usable deflniteness the child's experience. 
It is not alv/ays in words that expression is reached. At first the 
teacher is often satisfied if the content can be made definite enough 
to be expressed vividly in gesture or in the more complex action 
of dramatization; or in line and color thru pictures; or in form 
thru plastic material ; or in rhythm and melody thru song. As the 
child advances, words gradually becorhe the chosen medium of 
expression in the language hour until by the time he has entered 
the fourth or fifth grade the various forms of expression are being 
trained separately. The language teacher should never forget, 
however, that the sister studies of dramatization, drawing, music 
and illustrative manual v/ork may be called in at any time help is 
needed in making the child's content definite and vivid. 

Work to form literary likings and habits. The child finds in 
literature the great store house from which he can gather beauti- 
ful words and forms. He cannot too early begin his training in 



LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 89 



sensitiveness to its harmonies and proportions by continual con- 
tact with it. The literature given him must be beautiful in form, 
but must deal with the ideas and interests of his own world. Just 
as truly as literature beyond the scope of his nature is powerless 
as a fonnative influence on his character, it is useless as a formative 
influence on his expression. He will not absorb beautiful forms 
unless they clothe ideas for which he seeks expression. 

II. SUBJECT MATTER 

FIRST DIVISION 

Make definite the child's direct experience, interests, opinions, 
observations thru 

a. Conversations dealing with familiar, seasonable, and popular 
topics, suggested by special days, passing objects and events 
of popular interest, games, home occupations, pets, etc. 

b. Free accounts of experiences, fancies; descriptions of things of 
interest. Stir the child to amuse his mates with a funny 
story, or to interest them with an exciting one, or to furnish 
helpful information. 

c. Reproduction of experiences and objects of interest in color, 
clay, etc. 

d. Letters to mothers, to absent school mates, to Santa Claus, etc. 

e. Daily record of the weather. 

Make definite the wider experiences oft'ered thru songs, poems 
and stories by means of conversations, oral reproductions, drama- 
tization, illustration thru clay modeling, sand table work, drawing, 
painting, paper cutting, and construction. 

Note: Teach capitalization, use of the period, interrogation 
point, exclamation point, quotation marks, and a simple letter 
heading and closing as needed. 

Train the children toward literary taste thru stories clothed 
in literary form by the teller, and thru poems, memorized exactly. 
Suggestive list of stories and poems. 

Jack and Jill, Little Boy Blue, Baa Baa Black Sheep, Humpty 
Dumpty, Little Bo Peep, Hickory Dickory Dock, Mother 
Goose; A Good Play, My Shadow, Happy Thought, The Wind, 
The Swing, Winter Time, My Ship and I, Autumn Fires. Stev- 



90 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

enson; The Tree, Bjornson; Seven Times One, Jean Ingelow; 
The Wind, Christmas Carol, Christina Rossetti; Winter, Tenny- 
son; Ariel's Song, Shakespeare; The Baby, George Macdonald; 
Lines Written in March, Wordsworth; Hiawatha's Childhood, 
Hiawatha's Sailing, Longfellow. 

Suggestive list of stories for adaptation. 

Little Red Riding Hood, The Elves and the Shoemaker, 
Grimm; The Ugly Duckling, The Little Match Girl, Anderson; 
The Three Bears, The Three Pigs, Jacobs; The Story of the 
First Woodpecker, Why the Swallow's Tail is Forked, Why the 
Rabbit is Timid, Florence Holbrook; The Childhood of Ji-Shib, 
A. E. Jenks; The Pomegranate Seeds, The Golden Touch, The 
Miraculous Pitcher, The Paradise of Children, Hawthorne; 
The Vision of Dante, Cedric, Elizabeth Harrison; Raggylug, 
Thompson-Seaton ; The Pig Brother, The Great Feast, Laura 
E. Richards; The Mouse and the Moonbeam, The Coming of 
the Prince, Eugene Field. 

References : — 

How to Tell Stories to Children, Sara Cone Bryant ; Text Book 
of Art Education, (for modeling subjects, etc.) ; Teachers' Col- 
lege Record, January 1906, Discussion of Literature, p. 59; 
In the Child's World, Emilie Poulsson; Three Years with the 
Poets, Bertha Hazard; For the Children's Hour, Bailey & Lewis. 

SECOND DIVISION 

The same outline as for the first division is used, with the nec- 
essary additions due to the widening of the children's experience 
thru the study of geography, history, and pictures. 

The oral work is kept in excess of written ; original poems and 
songs, and written reproductions are called for. In this division 
the emphasis is placed on arrangement and completeness of thought. 
Habits of correct speech are formed, and errors are corrected, 
when necessary, thru definite exercises and games which give drill, 
as e. g. on irregular verbs. 
Suggestive list of poems and stories arranged in the order of the 

seasons. 

Fall. 

September, Helen Hunt Jackson; The Kitten and the 



LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 91 



Falling Leaves, Wordsworth; Little Orphant Annie, James 
W. Riley; The Huskers, Whittier; Stories of the Pilgrims 
— to be adapted by the teacher from (1) Colonial Chil- 
dren, Pratt; (2) History of Plymouth Plantation, Gover- 
nor Bradford; (3) Pilgrims and Puritans, Nina Moore. 
Winter. 

Everywhere Christmas, Brooks; While Shepherds 
Watched, Margaret Deland; Why Do Bells for Christmas 
Ring, Eugene Field; 'Twas the Night Before Christmas, 
Moore; Christmas Bells, H. W. Longfellow; The Old Bell, 
Andrea Hofer; The Sparrows, Celia Thaxter; Piccola, 
Celia Thaxter; Story of Christmas in England — to be 
adapted by the teacher from Washington Irving's de- 
scription of same; Tiny Tim, Dickens — adapted by Ella 
B. Keck; The First Snowfall, Lowell; Little Red Riding 
Hood, Whittier ; Lincoln Stories — to be adapted by the 
teacher from (1) Abraham Lincoln, Baldwin; (2) Lincoln 
in Story, Silas G. Pratt; George Washington Stories — to 
be adapted by the teacher from "George Washington," 
Horace E. Scudder. 
Spring. 

The Robin, The Wind Flower, Lucy Larcom; The Scare- 
crow, Celia Thaxter. 
Suggestive list of books which contain excellent stories. 

Uncle Remus, Joel C. Harris; Wagner Opera Stories, Grace E. 
Barber; Just So Stories, Kipling; Jungle Stories, Books I 
and II, Kipling; Lobo, Rag, and Vixen, Ernest Seaton- 
Thompson; Story Hour, Kate Douglas Wiggin; Bible Stories, 
Richard Moulton; Fairy Tales — Indian, Joseph Jacobs. 
References for suggestions as to method and inspiration to the 
teachers. 

How to Tell Stories to Children, Sara Cone Bryant; Value of 
Hero Stories, Helen Ford Staples; The Dramatic in Education, 
El. Sch. T'r, Vol. IV. 

THIRD DIVISION 

The work in the third division differs from that in the earHer 
divisions rather in proportion than in spirit. The chief aim of the 



92 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

work is still to bring definiteness and reality to the child's content 
and nurture the impulse to share his real interests freely. 

We continue to use (1) free accounts of experiences, fancies; 
discussions of ideals and opinions; descriptions of objects, places of 
interest, etc. ; explanations of games and other activities. (2) Il- 
lustrative stories, by both teacher and child. (3) Written accounts 
of familiar or interesting objects, events, etc. (4) Poems concern- 
ing matters of vital interest and pleasure to the child. (5) Letters 
to absent mates, invitations and acceptances which are actually 
sent, requests for folders, or other information of use in other 
studies, etc. 

FOURTH DIVISION 

In the fourth division the child's need of sharing exactly his 
interests opens the way to formal (though never mechanical) work. 
Here he begins to gather his history and geography from organized 
texts, and to think with some rough groupings and sense of rela- 
tions, and therefore the foundation topic of the language work is 
the paragraph. The increasing complexity of the child's thought 
calls for more careful punctuation in his written expression, and 
study is made of the use of the comma, and of the semi-colon in 
individual cases. The child's stock of ideas and interests is also 
so enriched that continual effort must be expended on giving him 
needed words to keep pace with it. Vocabulary work, therefore, 
assumes great importance. 

In this work on paragraphing, punctuation, and vocabulary 
we use (1) The child's own experiences — the things that are of 
real interest to the child; games, contests, excursions planned for 
and enjoyed in common by the class; infomiation which part pos- 
sess and the others are really desirous of ; discussions of matters to 
be decided by the class for a real event; letters to be sent to real 
people. All subjects should lend themselves to easy organization 
along large lines. (2) The wider experiences the school brings him 
— reproductions, and cuttings of literature, organization and dis- 
cussions of the subject matter of his other studies. (3) Creative 
imagination — problems to be worked out thru imaginary scenes, 
situations, actions, stories explanatory of pictures, scenes in far 



LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 93 

countries, to be constructed from material supplied in the geogra- 
phy lessons, narrations expanding events touched upon briefly in 
the history and literature lessons. 

Paragraphing : See that to the child paragraphing is a matter 
of real thought division not of external form. The teacher must 
constantly guard against two things: she must not try to induce a 
complexity of organization natural to her, but beyond the power 
of the child; and she must not insist on her own organization, even 
on large lines. The child can think only in large divisions; if she 
tries to refine his paragraphing he will feel each separate thought 
or fact by itself which is the very reverse of the organization she 
seeks to induce. He must be permitted to reflect his own divisions 
in order that his own power to organize may grow. He will not 
gain individual power by being told where to indent. Class dis- 
cussion over the paragraphing is very valuable, as the children's 
minds are nearly on the same plane and they can therefore give 
and take organization from each other effectively. The following 
exercises are suggestive of the general method to be followed in 
working on the child's paragraph instinct: 

1. Let the class read together the advance history lesson, 
deciding on the "big thought" of the v/hole lesson and of each para- 
graph in the lesson. Place the topics on the board, and have the 
recitations made from it next day. Great stress should be laid in 
recitation on strict adherence to topic, on the one hand, and on 
completeness of any topic, on the other. Later, the whole lesson 
may be re-grouped around a new focus; this should not be done 
until the children readily grasp the leading thought of clearly para- 
graphed text. 

2. Let the class find new titles for the reading lesson. Test 
each suggested title by examination of the lesson, paragraph by 
paragraph, condensing each to a single statement. 

3. Give the children hectographed sheets, containing poems 
or prose units without indentation. Let them give a title and in- 
dent according to the thought divisions. Study the author's para- 
graphing of the same, with free discussion. The a.uthor may not 
have made the only possible grouping. For this should be used 
material clearly falling into large divisions. 

4. Study objects for description, narration and such simple 
argument as the children use, and have the class settle on two or 



94 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

three large divisions; then examine detail of description and note 
which division claims each. Do not complete an intricate outline 
for them to follow. 

5. Put before the children a broad topic clearly organized, 
and let them choose stories from any part of it. Hold the story 
in its place in the organization by constant references to the whole 
as it is told. Put the outline on the board at first. Later make 
sure that they hold it mentally, e. g. 

Why I like my summer camp. 

I. It is interesting. 

A. Fun on land. 

(1) Picnics 

(2) Plays 

(3) Stories around the bonfire. 

B. Fun on the water. 

(1) Sailing 

(1) At camp. 

(2) On a cruise. (2nd story chosen.) 

(2) Bathing. 

(1) Games in the water. 

(2) Tricks played on each other. (1st story 
chosen.) 

(3) Practice which is valuable. 

II. It is beautiful. 

A. The island. 

(1) Trees 

(2) Wild flowers. (3rd story chosen.) 

(3) Tents 

(4) Wild animals. (4th story chosen.) 

B. The waters. 

(1) Our bay 

(2) The channel 

(3) Other island camps. 

6. Undertake a joint enterprise; a play, a picnic, an enter- 
tainment, the construction of needed apparatus. Make the plans 
in full, and carry them out with constant reference to the whole. 
This, requires the children to think the organization of the whole 
on what ever detail they are working. 

When the children do actually organize their material in 



LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 95 

large divisions, it will yet be necessary to drill them on indentation 
to reflect the same. The important thing in this drill, as in all for- 
mal work, is that the indentation be kept before them always as a 
sign of a thing that actually exists in their own minds, not as a 
thing of value in itself. For example, let a child who has written 
on "The Adventures of One Day," hold his paper before the class 
for inspection, with the question: "How many adventures?" If the 
reading of the story does not corroborate the decision the class 
made from his indentations, he must remodel his work. Or let 
a child place his list of large topics on the board, and challenge 
others to find any topic in his paper by inspection. In more ad- 
vanced work let him read a sentence and challenge others to 
point to its place by noting under what topic it should occur. If 
the one challenged misplaces it he loses; but if he can prove that 
it should have been under the topic he chose, the reader loses. 
Children preparing work with such a game in view organize their 
work with eager care. Numerous variations of such exercises will 
occur to any teacher working along thought lines. 

Punctuation: Keep up a steady pressure for the correct use 
of the period, interrogation and exclamation points, capitals, and 
quotation marks. All members of the class should begin to use 
the comma intelligently; to separate the word of address from the 
rest of the sentence, to separate words in a series, to separate ex- 
planatory phrases from the rest of the sentence. An occasional 
class discussion as to the ways to bring out meanings should be 
added to constant suggestive questioning of individuals. A few 
children will begin to need the semi-colon; supply it individually. 
The following exercises may serve as an example of drill work in 
punctuation : 

(1) Read a selection with short sentences to the class. Have 
the pupils count the number of sentences read. This helps to build 
up the idea of a sentence unit, and teaches the use of the period. 

(2) Read to the class sentences containing words in a series, 
such as. The grocer sells tea, coffee, sugar, cookies, and flour. 
How many things does he sell? 

Similar sentences are written on the board and the class is re- 
quired to separate the different things from each other. Make the 
need for the commas felt, before drilling on their use. 

Vocabulary: Watch every opportunity to enrich the child's 



96 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Store of forcible words. Whole lessons will be required to be de- 
voted entirely to word gathering. Once get the children eager to 
express a definite idea and they absorb new words which will aid 
them therein, very rapidly. In general the best source for new 
words is the class. Whenever a need for words is felt, make a 
class list ; it is astonishing how rich is the combined vocabulary of 
a class whose individual members are word-poor. The teacher 
may add such as she desires them to add to their stock; but they 
take from each other most readily. It is valuable to read' some 
bit of literature gemmed with the sort of words they w411 need, 
just before the task in composition is set them. The main thing is 
to give them their new words in response to a definite need; this 
makes them available for expression. For the most part it will 
be found that sufficient opportunity for word-drill occurs thus in 
connection with other lines of progress, but there are times when 
whole lessons are needed for vocabulary work. Then the thing to 
be expressed should be very definite and stimulating, and, very 
often, should be present for comparison. Take a good copy of 
Rosa Bonheur's Lion, and try to get words describing the expres- 
sion; or mount a milkweed stalk and set the children trying to 
picture it in words; examine a winged Mercury, and the children's 
vocabulary will multiply in certain directions, wonderfully; com- 
pete to see who can, with a limited number of words make a fire 
brightest, a sunset most delicate, a man angriest, a curve most 
graceful, a boy most courageous, a mountain ruggedest and so on. 
This sort of work should be less frequent than exercises where ex- 
travagance is checked by the presence of the thing described, but 
it is most valuable in multiplying new words. The surroundings 
and interests of any class will furnish a thoughtful teacher with 
innumerable openings for such exercises. 

FIFTH DIVISION 

.The fifth division carries the paragraphing, punctuation and 
word-study to finer distinctions, following the evolution of the 
child's content, but a new work is to be definitely begun. The 
child's thought is by this time highly complex, and is also frequently 
compounded in all of the four relations (copulative, adversative, 
casual, alternative), but his expression is apt to be stiff and there- 



LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 97 



fore false to his content for lack of flexible sentence form. The 
foundation of the language work in the fifth division is therefore 
sentence study. 

Paragraphing: Keep up a steady pressure for intelligent para- 
graphing. Study the work in the fourth division and apply the 
same methods in reviews, stories, and discussion. To hold the class 
to the perfoiTnance of its best in paragraph form, will require that 
the teacher bear the principles of paragraph work in mind in all 
presentations and discussions, rather than that much definite para- 
graph work be done in class. 

Punctuation; Keep up a steady pressure for the correct use 
of the period, exclamation and interrogation points, comma, capi- 
tals and quotation marks. Occasional class discussion of a passage 
will be valuable in encouraging individual and intelligent punctua- 
tion, but do most of it by suggestive questioning of individuals as 
to the meaning of poorly punctuated passages. Watch to see 
which children really need the semi-colon. 

Vocabulary: See fourth division. 

Sentence work : Work definitely to make the child's sentence 
form flexible and responsive. 

(a) Do definite work for each variety of the complex sen- 
tence in turn ; introduce clauses of time thru a narrative demanding 
them; clauses of place thru description demanding correlation in 
space; clauses of cause, manner, degree, concession and so on, in 
like manner, thru the pressure of a subject matter exacting them. 
Most of the constructions of the simple sentence w'ill evolve along 
with these. Make the primaiy pressure not for a given forai, but 
for the expression of an idea which finds that form useful. Thus 
every set of lessons will develop not the one form aimed at, but a 
group of parallel constructions interchangeably useful in expressing 
the sort of thought relationship which furnishes the pressure. 

(b) Attack the compound sentence thru its adversative form ; 
begin by sharpening the child's sense of contrast, and rousing his 
perception of the contradictory elements in things about him and 
of the co-existence of contradictory facts. When he is sensitive to 
contrast he will be easily goaded into using the various forms of the 
adversative sentence by the exactions of a content filled with these 
contradictory elements. Use the same method to exercise him in 
compounding sentences copulatively, casually, and alternatively. 



98 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 



(c) Do continual work in sentence response. The aim of this 
work is to give the child instinctive skill in adapting his form to 
his thought. Its object is flexibility; it seeks to render the forms 
in his possession mobile and swiftly obedient. 

For drill and review use: 

(a) Cuttings of bits of literature too long to be presented to the 
class as a whole. 

(b) Expansions of scenes left weak or obscure in literature in 
which the children are thoroly interested. 

(c) Organizations, expansions, discussions from the subject matter 
of other studies. 

(d) Literary entertainments offered to another class, using lately 
acquired material as subject matter: e. g. India; The first 
year of the Revolution, etc. The children discover dramatic 
and stimulating elements in such subjects unsuspected by 
them until they attempt to make it interesting to another class. 

SIXTH DIVISION 

No outHne can at present be given since the work in the sixth 
division is being reconstructed and tested. The two objects in 
view are: 

(1) Introduction of simple work in thought analysis. 

(2) Selection of what is felt to be essential to any real mas- 
tery of language. In technical grammar much that is interesting 
and not without value is being sacrificed to what seems relatively 
most important. By this means we hope to make our work real. 

The series of lessons now being tested in the seventh and 
eighth grades we hope will result in a distinct contribution to the 
teaching of language and grammar. An outHne of the subject 
matter covered with a description of each lesson as actually taught, 
is in preparation. 

Finding that work in both grammar and composition in the 
review class burdens the child, we at present omit grammar in that 
grade for we beHeve composition to be the more helpful of the two 
in aiding the child to get control of his mental Hfe. 



LITERATURE AND READING 99 



LITERATURE AND READING 

I. INTRODUCTION 

Because literature and reading are so closely related and be- 
cause space is so limited, it has seemed best to treat these two sub- 
jects together even though something might be gained by giving 
each a separate treatment. 

Literature as a school subject consists in teaching children to 
appreciate the meaning of what they hear and read. Reading 
consists in teaching children to get meaning from written or printed 
language and to communicate this meaning to others in the words 
of the author. A start in each of these should precede school life. 
Literature should begin for the child in his hearing and enjoying 
good stories told to him ; reading should begin in his looking at the 
painted page while stories are being read to him. If the home life 
or kindergarten does not give the children plenty of stories in both 
of these ways, the first school problem is to supply this lack, be- 
cause, without this foundation, progress in literature and in reading 
will be much delayed if not perverted. 

These two subjects should be taught daily in school work, 
placing an emphasis on the one or on the other according to the 
needs of the class or of individuals. Learning to read should have 
a place in the program in every grade, more and more difficult 
matter being chosen from year to year. 

Reading, as suggested in the definition given above, is of two 
kinds, silent and expressive. These differ chiefly in the emphasis 
which each places on the different processes involved in reading. 
Silent reading emphasizes those processes which are more directly 
concerned in getting the meaning of what is read, while expressive 
reading brings into prominence those processes by which the mean- 
ing of what is read is communicated to others in the words of the 
author. Silent reading presents two varieties; reading to acquire 
a knowledge of facts and reading to appreciate values. Reading for 
facts has a proper place in school work, and it should gradually be 



100 LITERATURE AND READING 

introduced as the children develop the power to discriminate be- 
tween fact and fancy. But reading to appreciate is the more im- 
portant in elementary school work. If the material read has real 
literary worth then the reading lesson is at the same time a lesson 
in literature. Expressive reading presents three .chief varieties: 
(1) natural, (2) artificial, (3) purposive. Expressive reading is 
natural when the forms of expression arise without conscious direc- 
tion on the part of the reader. It is artificial, or mechanical, when 
the reader decides what forms of expression he will use and then 
produces these forms consciously. It is purposive when the reader 
devotes his powers of thought and expression to the securing of 
some result in the minds of others. 

Reading for meaning is the great problem in the reading lesson 
in the early grades. To test the success of a child in getting the 
meaning he should be required to give in his own words an accurate 
and full account of what he has read and what it means, and some- 
times to act out the thought. In this way a foundation may be 
laid for expressive reading. Story telling and reciting should also 
be prominent in early school work, both because of their own value 
and because they complete the foundation for expressive reading. 
The time to begin definite work in expressive reading is when the 
children can keep the meaning and the forms of thought clearly 
before their minds and at the same time express the meaning in 
the words of another. The teacher's criterion should now be the 
adequacy with which the children communicate their meanings to 
others rather than the closeness of their conformity to the words of 
the author. As the children grow older a closer conformity should 
be required. 

The separation of the lesson in expressive reading from that 
in silent reading is very important. The success of each depends 
upon its having, for the time being, full swing in the mind. One 
strong reason for this separation is because more difficult matter 
should be used in silent reading than can be successfully handled 
in expressive reading. 

To teach silent reading and literature the teacher needs (1) a 
wide range of experience in interpreting and appreciating good 
literature and (2) a thoro knowledge of the pedagogy of reading 
and literature. 

To teach expressive reading the teacher needs to know; (1) 



LITERATURE AND READING 101 



what forms of expression should be most approved ; (2) what forms 
of mental action correspond to the approved forms of expression ; 
(3) how the experiences of the children may be so controlled as to 
secure these best forms of thought and expression. (1) The best 
forms of expression are those which most fully and effectively re- 
veal the child's meaning. There is no external system of forms to 
which the child must conform in his expression. (2) The best 
forms of mental action are those which are suggested by extracts 
from good literature when chosen with reference to the stage of 
development of the children. (3) The best ways of controlling the 
child's experience are the following: a. By securing good work 
in silent reading, i. e., by helping the child to get full, deep and 
stirring meanings from what he reads, b. By giving the child 
a social situation which invites his best efforts, i. e., setting him 
the problem of securing some important result in the minds of 
those present, c. By making suggestions to help the children in 
using the different methods of learning as applied to expressive 
reading. 

A mind full of thought and a good social situation are both in- 
dispensable to good expression but not adequate to the best re- 
sults. The teacher must suggest good methods of perfecting the 
expression. 

What is needed in the pedagogy of reading is (1) a psychology 
giving a detailed treatment of the processes involved in reading 
and in learning to read, (2) a full and accurate statement of the 
stages of development in learning to read, (3) a list of carefully 
selected extracts from good literature adapted to each of these 
stages, and (4) an adequate report on the methods which teachers 
may use in teaching reading. A good beginning has been made 
in the first of these by E. B. Hue'y in his Psychology and Pedagogy 
of Reading, and in the third by C. W. Emerson in his Evolution of 
Expression. For the other two no satisfactory references can be 
given. 

The psj^chology of reading offers many conclusions, of which 
the more important for the teacher of reading are the following : 

1. The eyes move from left to right in a series of short, quick 
movements and pauses. 



102 LITERATURE AND READING 

2. There are from three to six pauses in a line of ordinary length. 

3. The mind does its perceiving during the pauses. 

4. The units in perceiving are neither the letters, the syllables, 
nor the words, but about ten letter spaces. 

5. Perception in reading depends upon slight visual cues (domi- 
nant letters usually) and it pays little attention to the division 
of the language into words. 

6. The mind completes its perception of the language by an ap- 
perceptive filling out. of the words and phrases suggested by 
the visual and vocal cues. 

7. Short words can be perceived as rapidly as single letters and 
short sentences require only a very little more time than single 
words. 

8. The reading unit is the sentence or the whole thought expressed 
by the sentence. 

9. Cases of perceiving letter by letter or word by word are due 
to habits formed in learning to read. 

10. Internal speech is a constant factor in all reading for nearly 
all persons. 

11. This inner speech is usually simpler and more rapid than 
reading aloud. 

12. The division of speech into syllables and words is artificial. 

13. The sounds used in speech can not usually be given in isola- 
tion. 

14. A sentence is not merely the pronunciation of its words. 

15. The meaning of what is read is secured by the association of 
ideas as determined by the visual and vocal cues and by the 
context. 

16. In good reading the attention is not directed to the letters or 
the words but it is given now to one thing and now to another 
in a way that is not yet understood. 

17. Many extraneous and accidental associations form when 
words are perceived out of context. 

18. The mental images which form as one reads are variable and 
fluctuating. 

19. The only thing which remains constant in re-reading a passage 
is the core of the meaning. 



LITERATURE AND READING 103 



20. Rapid reading is favorable both for apprehension and for re- 
tention. 

21. Some persons read four times as fast as others. 

22. A rhythmic movement is favorable for reading. 

The chief stages of development in learning to read may be 
named as follows: 

1. Instinct 4. Dramatization 

2. Imitation 5. Thought 

3. Volition 6. Purpose. 

Each of these terms may be used again to name the method 
which is most prominent in that stage. 

1. Instinct. In this stage the child reacts instinctively to 
the books in his environment. He looks at the pictures and fre- 
quently thru curiosity he wants to know what the language says. 
Gradually associations form between the meaning of the pictures 
and the printed words and also between these words and what 
others tell him the words mean. In this way he may gradually 
learn to read. 

2. Imitation. The instinct of imitation becomes prominent 
in this stage. The child unconsciously imitates what others do 
when they are reading silently or aloud in his presence. If he has 
frequent opportunity to look on the page as others read aloud he 
soon learns to know what story is on each page. Gradually he 
learns to recognize parts of the pages as corresponding to parts of 
the story and later to know what sentences and words mean, 
Then his instinct of imitation which has now become a habit leads 
him to try to read what he has not heard read. He will succeed 
in this as soon as he can recognize enough words and phrases to 
make sense when they come together in his mind. This method 
asks that many good copies be given him so that he may acquire 
good forms of expression. 

3. Volition. What characterizes this stage is that the child 
consciously decides what he is going to do and how he is going to 
do it. Two tendencies arise ; one for him to go thru a merely formal 
exercise giving close attention to spelling or to pronunciation, and 
the other for him to keep the meaning in his mind and at the same 
time to pay attention to the forms (letters, sounds, words, etc.). 

In accordance with the first of these tendencies he follows the 
directions of the teacher by spelling or naming the words, by sound- 



104 LITERATURE AND READING 



ing the letters or syllables, and by pronouncing the syllables, 
words or sentences. In these ways he learns to pronounce as many 
words as he can recognize, but he has not learned to read in any 
true sense of the term. These formal methods, known as the al- 
phabetic, phonic, word and sentence methods are gradually giving 
way to the more real dramatic and thought methods. The com- 
mon practice of giving a part of the reading period to mere word 
pronouncing is unfortunate, for such an exercise is never really 
reading. If any phonic, word, or sentence drills are given they 
should be separated from the reading lesson proper. Certain signs 
indicate that such drills may gradually disappear from school work 
since better results can be secured by keeping the meaning before 
the mind and perfecting the forms by giving them secondary atten- 
tion. Drill in the correct pronunciation of isolated syllables or 
words has very little effect in real reading, because the associations 
formed by the drill are not of the same kind as those used in read- 
ing. The great method of securing good pronunciation is to have 
the child frequently hear well pronounced language, and more or 
less unconsciously imitate it. 

If the second of these tendencies prevails the child expresses 
his thoughts by voluntarily spelling, sounding or pronouncing the 
words. In this way he gradually acquires new languages, as it 
were, by which to express his thoughts and meanings, and these 
languages give most thoro practice in spelling, in pronouncing, and 
in other formal aspects of expression. 

4. Dramatization. When the dramatic tendencies arise in 
the child he begins to put himself in another's place, to feel with 
another, and to express himself in such a way as to reveal the 
spirit of some person or occasion. As a method this is very effi- 
cient in teaching reading if due care is taken to keep the work free 
from formality. The forms of expression are controlled by con- 
trolling the experiences. A thoro grounding in dramatization 
seems to be essential to satisfactory progress in the higher stages 
and to the most successful use of the higher methods. 

In using this method the teacher is not limited to the forms 
of expression which arise in the children spontaneously. He may 
by using imitation lead the children to assume various bodily atti- 
tudes which will react on their experiences and thereby mold their 
forms of expression in the desired way. The dangers which arise 



LITERATURE AND READING 105 

in doing this may be avoided by giving many copies for the chil- 
dren to imitate and by always making this work supplementary 
to the method of working from within out. 

5. Thought. The activities of mind which are most promi- 
nent in this stage are those which carry the meanings which one 
gets in silent reading. These are usually thinking activities and 
the outcome is a series of thoughts. 

The thought methods ask the child to fix his attention on 
the thought suggested by the language which he is reading and on 
the way his mind acts in realizing and revealing these thoughts. 
The underlying principle of these methods when used in teaching 
expressive reading is that the best forms of expression may be 
secured (1) by encouraging the child to give spontaneous expression 
to his thoughts, (2) by molding these thoughts in such a way as to 
secure more approved forms of expression, and (3) by adding to 
the consciousness of the meaning some attention to the forms 
when necessary. The success of these methods when wisely used 
is one of the most encouraging things in public school work. 

6. Purpose. As a stage of development this deserves more 
attention than it has received in public schools, and as a method 
it is most promising. When the child's reading fulfills some real 
purpose of which he is conscious he is using the purpose method. 
In this as in the thought method the chief attention is not given to 
the forms of language or expression but to the inner meaning, tho 
some secondary attention may be given to the forms. When the 
purpose has a social reference it is very efficient in controlling both 
the thinking and the expression. This method excels all others in 
bringing out latent powers and in using them and all other powers 
in the most effective way. It gives a principle by which the great 
complexity of experience may be organized. 

On entering school the child should have many strong and 
active instincts; he should be skilful in imitating many things, and 
he should have well formed habits of obedience. Upon these the 
teacher must build. ' Each of these has its fulfillment in the next 
and yet it persists along with each of the others. By a right use 
of all of these the teacher will hasten the child's progress to the 
dramatic stage. Then by adding the dramatic method to those 
already employed the teacher insures further progress in the best 
way. Vfell directed work in the use of the dramatic method 



106 LITERATURE AND READING 

gradually leads on to the thought stage. The purpose method may 
be used as soon as the children can hold a social purpose in mind 
while reading. At just what age a child reaches each of these 
stages is not known. Care should be taken to avoid the practice 
both of keeping the children too long in one stage and also of 
hurrying them on to a new stage. Perhaps the safest principle to 
follow in deciding when to begin to ask the children consciously 
to use the method of any higher stage is when this method has al- 
ready arisen unconsciously in the child. 

II. SUBJECT MATTER 

1. Principles which should govern in selecting subject matter for 
the different grades: 

(1) Only that should be read which has some kind of real 
worth. 

(2) In each grade that should be read which can have some 
kind of real meaning to the children in that stage of de- 
velopment. 

(3) The mind's power to receive and appreciate is quite a 
distance ahead of its power to reveal expressively. 

(4) Success both in appreciating and in revealing depends 
upon securing the right amount of bodily response (in- 
cluding movements). The motor type of child may use 
too much movement and the sensory type, too little. 

2. Kinds of material best adapted to school work in literature 
and reading. 

For the earlier grades may be suggested: Mother Goose 
rhymes, jingles, folk lore, fairy tales, and simple stories of prim- 
itive life. 

In general, use stories which appeal to the imagination and to 
feeling and which contain action, adventure, mystery, magic, 
games, etc., told in a simple way. 

For the middle grades, fables, ballads, stories of heroes and of 
heroic adventure, epics, and simple dramas are desirable. 

In general, use that literature which appeals to imagination 
and feeling as related to the world of deeds, which is somewhat 
melodramatic and even grotesque, and which gives opportunity for 
the child's powers of make-believe to have full swing. 



LITERATURE AND READING 107 

For the upper grades the following are more suitable: lyrics, 
epics, dramas, biography, detective stories, romances. 

In general an introduction to some of the best literature of 
life and love should be studied at this time. 
3. Texts used in the different grades. 

FIRST GRADE 

B Class : Printed Action Commands ; The Pancake (Folk -tale from 
Chart) ; Hawthorne, Sunbonnet, and Folk Lore Primers. 

A Class: In Mythland; Cyr Advanced First Reader; Realistic 
First Reader; Once Upon a Time Stories; Folk Lore Stories and 
Proverbs, Wiltse. 

SECOND GRADE 

B Class: Old Time Stories; Child-Lore Dramatic Reader; Boy 
Blue and His Friends; Little Golden Hood. 

A Class: Child Life, Blaisdell; Bow Wow and Mew Mew, Craik; 
Fairy Tales and Fables, Thompson; Stepping Stones to Litera- 
ture II; Cyr II; Tree Dwellers. 

THIRD GRADE 

B Class: Second Reader, Baker & Carpenter; Third Reader, Bald- 
win ; Stories of Mother Goose Village, Bigham ; Fairy Stories and 
Fables, Baldwin; Early Cave Men, Dopp; Robinson Crusoe, 
De Foe. 

A Class : Stepping Stones to Literature III ; Letters From a Cat, 
H. H. Jackson; Grover's Art Literature III; Later Cave Men, 
Dopp; Hawthorne II. 

FOURTH GRADE 

B Class: Third Reader, Judson & Bender; Third Reader, Baker 

& Carpenter: Viking Tales, Hall. 
A Class : Third Reader, Jones ; Docas, Snedden ; Alice's Adventures 

in Wonderland, Carroll; Adventures of a Brownie; Classics in 

Dramatic Form. 

FIFTH GRADE 

B Class: Third Reader, Hawthorne; Stepping Stones IV; Ulysses, 
Lamb; Sir Bevis, Jeffries. In connection with Greek history 
work — Stories from Plato, Burt. 



108 LITERATURE AND READING 

A Class: Heart of Oak III, (except Ulysses); Fourth Reader, 
Jones; Graded Literature Reader, IV; King of Golden River, 
Ruskin; Christmas Carol, Bird. For dramatization: — Hiawa- 
tha, Robin Hood. 

SIXTH GRADE 

B Class : King Arthur ; Baldwin V ; Judson and Bender V ; Jacka- 
napes and the Brownies. 
A Class: William Tell; Cyr V; Lobo, Rag, and Vixen. 

SEVENTH GRADE 

B Class : Hawthorne Fourth and Stepping Stones 5th — most of 

the selections in each, always used. The Flag Raising — always 

used. Miles Standish — used occasionally. 
A Class : Baldwin Sixth Reader — always used. Occasional use 

is made of Birds and Bees, Holmes Leaflets, and Hawthorne's 

Wonder Book. 

EIGHTH GRADE 

B Class: Evolution of Expression, Vol. I., Emerson; A Hunting 
of the Deer, Warner; Lady of the Lake, Scott; Vision of Sir 
Launfal, Lowell; Idylls of the King (selection from); Tennyson; 
Julius Caesar, Shakespeare. 

A Class : Grammar School Fourth Reader, Elson ; Ivanhoe (adapt- 
ed), Scott; Merchant of Venice, Shakespeare; Twelve Stories 
from Dickens; Enoch Arden, Tennyson; The Man Without a 
Country, Hale. 



MUSIC 109 



MUSIC 

The course includes the following topics in school music. To 
these are added subjects in other departments which are indicated 
by the sign as given. 

Elements of Notation — Voice Study (Child and Adult) — Sight 
Reading — Song Study and Interpretation — Methods — Ear Train- 
ing (Oral and written) — Practice Teaching and Observation Work 
— Musical Biography — Music Form and Analysis — Choral Practice 
— * Literary Interpretation — * Reading — *Pedagogy — *Psychology 
— * History of Education — *School Management. 

I. Elements of Notation. 

Text — Elements in Music — Bertenshaw. 

Rhythm — Note, dot, rest, bar, measure, accent, time signa- 
ture. 

Melody — (1) Major Scale: Construction and transposition; 
(2) Minor Scale: Related and tonic. (3) Chromatic Scale. 

II. Voice Study. 

Voice training, sight reading, song interpretation, and musical 
literature have a lasting value in musical life. Since studio, choral 
society, and chorus choir prefer the high school graduate who has 
attained a fair mastery in the subjects mentioned, these might well 
be regarded as the practical side of a public school music course. 
The professional side belongs to the teacher, and in addition to the 
topics as outlined would include Musical History, Harmony and a 
Piano-forte course. 

The Voice is the instrument which the pupil learns to use in 
the school room. Possibly, the constantly changing school voice 
is the greatest problem for the grade teacher to solve. Therefore, 
the course is so planned that the chapter on Voice Study forms a 
background for all subsequent work. An effort is made to treat 
music as a language, a simple language v/hich the child can com- 
prehend, appreciate and enjoy. • 

1.' The Child Voice. 

Text — The Child Voice in Singing — Howard. 

The Care and Use of the Child Voice — Bates. 



no MUSIC 

Breathing Exercises for children should be few and simple. 
An abundance of fresh air, a good posture, and daily, vigorous out- 
door play will make for breath control when the time arrives for 
intelligent use of the breath in singing and speaking. Try gentle, 
rhythmic breathing of fresh air at suitable times during the day. 
Exercise I. Inhale, count four; hold, count four; exhale, count four; rest, 

count four. Repeat several times. 
Exercise II. Inhale, exhale abruptly. 
Exercise III. Inhale, sustain soft tone upon Do in Key of E — use vowel 

combination oo - e - a. Transpose by half tones higher, singing slowly 

and softly. 

Vocal Exercises: Every song, every exercise must be made 
the means of voice training. Vocalize songs, sight reading exer- 
cises with ah, la, ta, who, loo, and other syllables. 
2. The Adolescent Voice. 

a. The Soprano Voice. 

If in childhood the use of the head tone has been practiced, 
the voice will develop naturally. Encourage a light, flexible 
tone, unconscious effort in the upper register. The teacher 
should notice the tone quality of the speaking voice, for much 
can be gained from a careful study of it. Frequently test 
voices individually ; sopranos who can sing easily upward from 
middle C to G (first space above) should continue singing that 
part ; all may be classed as altos who can sing downward with 
the right tone quality from C (third space) to one or two notes 
below middle C. 

b. The Alto Voice. 

The alto and soprano voices differ largely in timbre, tone- 
color, tone quality. There is the same difference between the 
alto and the soprano voice as exists between a cello and a violin. 
Neither instrument is limited in compass, they vary only in 
tone quality. The alto voice is capable of a head tone, or of 
producing high notes fully as beautiful as are found among 
sopranos, though unlike in timbre. The school alto suffers 
frequently because of a wrong use of the voice, the thick tone 
is forced upward, and becomes unmusical. The chest-tone in 
itself is musical when produced correctly. Deep breathing 
and an open throat will result in mellow, soft tones. The 
evenly developed scale should be the aim thruout school life. 



MUSIC 111 

The high, medium, and low tones ought to be considered aUke, 
and as far as possible, be developed at the proper time. Melody 
and part-singing must alternate continually in school singing 
since it would be fatal if any one of the parts continued singing 
within a limited compass. It is also difficult to determine the 
future of a voice at an early period, therefore, interchange 
parts frequently in upper grades. 
The Tenor Voice. 

The change in the boy voice is more or less gradual, boys 
who have been trained in the use of the head voice retaining 
their voices much longer than Vv^hen allowed to force the voice. 
While the average boy imagines he has a bass voice when the 
change takes place, his voice is in reality an unknown quantity. 
Listen for the tenor quality which is high and light, possessing 
something of the quality of the deep female voice, or alto tim- 
bre. Try the boy upon the descending scale, beginning with 
middle C and notice any undue effort in reaching the lower 
tones. If it is evident that a boy has a tenor voice he should 
not be allowed to sing below G, fourth space of the bass clef. 
The tenor voice is limited in compass even after much training. 
A series of exercises which follow the gradual change of the 
voice would seem desirable at the beginning of the mutation 
period. The new tenor voice can be employed in singing the 
second alto in three part songs, which are found in most ad- 
vanced music readers. By and by the part usually assigned 
the tenor in four part music for mixed voices can be attempted. 

The Bass Voice. Text: Melodia, Part I. Cole and Lewis, 
The Stanhope Edition. No. 102-3-4. 

To begin work in the bass clef in the key of G (pitch of 
Do, fourth space) and then descend thru the keys until the 
key of C is reached would seem to conform more with the de- 
velopment of the boy voice, than to begin upon a much lower 
pitch. The bass voice will grow more resonant and musical 
if medium tones are developed at first; avoid any forcing of 
the voice during the mutation period. There should be much 
unison singing of exercises and songs upon beginning the use 
of the bass clef. Give individual attention as far as is possible 
since all voices do not change alike. A special class for boys 



112 MUSIC 

during the mutation period would prove helpful; after the 
voice is established any text can be employed, 
e. The Voice of the Grade Teacher. 

Text — Book I, Vocal A, B, C — Panofka. Op. 9. Concone. 

Since the voice of the teacher is all important in the 
school-room, the grade teacher who has had special voice train- 
ing is most fortunate. Individual voice or class training would 
make many things possible in teaching sight reading and song 
interpretation. The sustained tone is most essential in train- 
ing the adult voice. Practice upon the sustained tone is also 
helpful in gaining breath control. The study of a beautiful 
tone, and coming in contact with musical life beyond the 
schoolroom is a source of inspiration. 

III. The Art of Conducting. 

1. The Baton: There should be leadership in conducting 
a music class. The tempo is all important in singing both 
song and exercise. The number and value of beats, the 
number and place of accents can easily be explained and 
understood, but the interpretation of tempo and time is 
a far more subtle and difficult task. Because of the na- 
ture of the song there should be variety in the tempo. 
The attack will improve too under leadership. Holding 
the baton lightly and gracefully, and beating time with 
an easy, rhythmic swing, using but the necessary motions, 
will impress time, rhythm, and tempo in a very simple, 
direct way. Secure the attention of the class by saying 
(for example, in 4-4 time, first note on first beat), one, - 
two, - three - sing, giving signal for beginning on beat 
preceding first note of measure. The mechanical rhythm 
and tempo of the schoolroom can be displaced only thru 
spirited, enthusiastic leadership on the part of the teacher. 
Nothing will wake up a drowsy, rote song class more than 
— "Shall we sing it this way?", followed by a spirited il- 
lustration with voice or baton. The spirit of the tempo 
brings much life into a schoolroom ; try to make music a 
source of inspiration. 

2. The Pitch-Pipe: The frequent and rapid giving of the 
pitch is vital in securing correct intonation and voice 



MUSIC 113 

placing. The use of the pitch-pipe and baton are among 
the essentials in method of teaching music. 
Formula for the use of the pitch-pipe (C pitch-pipe). 

To find the key-note, Scale of C — 

Sound always upper Do, sing to lower Do, call it Do. 
To find the key-note. Scale of G (one sharp). 

Sound C, sing to Sol, call it Do. 
To find the key-note. Scale of D (two sharps). 

Sound C, sing to lower Do, sing Re, call it Do. 
To find the key-note, Scale of A (three sharps). 

Sound C, sing to La, call it Do. 
To find the key-note. Scale of E (four sharps). 

Sound C, sing to Mi, call it Do. 
To find the key-note. Scale of F (one flat). 

Sound C, sing to Fa, call it Do. 
To find the key-note. Scale of B flat (two flats), 

Sound C, sing to Re in key of B flat, call it Do. 
To find the key-note. Scale of E flat (three flats). 

Sound C, sing to lower Do, call it La in key of E flat, sing 

up to Do in key of E flat. 
To find the key-note. Scale of A flat (four flats). 

Sound C, call it Mi in key of A flat, sing down to key-note 

of A flat. 

IV. Song Study and Interpretation. 

a. The Grade Teacher and the Rote Song. 

The teacher familiar with a long list of rote songs stands in 
little need of methods and theories. A simple, direct way of pre- 
senting a song appeals most to the child. The Rote Song requires 
study and preparation quite as much as does the Art Song. There- 
fore, if grade teachers would find it possible to devote a part of 
each school year to the study of rote songs, the result would prove 
a real musical uplift in the schoolroom. The primary teacher 
ought to have a good voice, dramatic power, and keen interpreta- 
tive ability in presenting a simple rote song. Then she must pos- 
sess the art of skilful questioning', she must have the gift of story 
telling; she needs a large fund of general information upon birds, 
bees and flowers, the trades and occupations, the world in which 
the child lives. Always present the song as a whole, singing the 
song for the class several times before allowing children to imitate. 
Then ask the class to repeat a phrase, or more, according to the 
nature of the song. 



114 MUSIC 

b. Song Interpretation. 

A. Melody. 

1. Tone-quality should be pure musical, sympathetic, 
depending largely upon training and method; intona- 
tion must be correct as to pitch and intervals. 

2. Rhythmic quality: observe the accents, secure the 
swing of the rhythm. 

3. Tempo includes movement, rate of speed, spirit of the 
music. 

4. Attack of tones and leads must be exact; insist upon 
precision in quitting final syllables. 

5. Shading as to soft and loud passages: a quiet tone, a 
resonant forte, a fine climax, these all most effective 
among mature voices. 

B. Words. 

1. Tone color. Look for the mood-pictures in the song; 
create picture which words represent; look for expres- 
sive words and phrases in song. 

2. Diction should be graceful, dwelling upon open vowel 
sound; enunciating as in distinct reading. 

3. Phrasing is the grouping of words to express thot ; re- 
cite words to secure perfect phrasing and expression. 

V. Methods. 

Musicianship is needed in the correct use of the voice, pitch- 
pipe, baton, sight-reading and song interpretation. Method is 
needed in presenting some of the first steps in notation. It is the 
mastery of ideas which is so important in school music, the working 
>ut of a song or exercise along these lines presents a never failing 
source of interest and pleasure. 

IN PRIMARY GRADES 

1. The Rote Song. 

Text — A Song Primer — Alys Bentley, 30c. 

Small Songs for Small Singers — W. H. Neidlinger, 60c. 

The Discontented Goldfish — W. H. Neidlinger, 75c. 

Song Development for Little Children — Heartz and Ripley, 50c. 

Songs of the Season — George, 50c. 

Mother Goose Melodies — J. W. ElHot, 35c. 

Songs from the Child World — Jessie L. Gaynor. Book, I, II, $1.00. 

Lilts and Lyrics — Jessie L. Gaynor, $1.00. 



MUSIC 115 

The child's first effort in music begins with a study of simple 
musical literature. He learns to sing as he learns to read, thru the 
use of a simple song-story, which is closely identified with his daily 
life and surroundings. Self expression on the part of the child is 
made possible only thru the selection of suitable song material. 
Play and action songs ought to call forth a natural happy expression 
in singing, because self-activity is so strong in childhood. The 
Mother Goose rhymes and fairy stories are easily dramatized and 
therefore satisfy the dramatic instinct of the child. 

The rote song is in many w^ays a preparation for music reading 
and future study. 
2. Ear Training. 

a. Melody Studies. 

For the sake of testing the class and individual members of 
the school in distinguishing sounds as to pitch and length, make 
the following experiments. The teacher should sing the interval 
1 to 8 in scale of E flat, using Loo, La, names as Flora, Lulu. . Class 
imitate. Test individuals. Let children try to recognize the voice 
of any play-mate when speaking, singing, calling, or imitating 
sounds in nature. Tell a story which brings into play the use of 
the child voice; for example, The Three Bears, The Lion and the 
Mouse. 

Name all the song birds of the locality, if possible reproducing 
some of the songs. Name all the insects that are musicians. In 
making the following tests, use pitch-pipe, piano, or any musical 
instrument, bells, whistles, musical toys. Always give two sounds 
and ask the class — are they alike or different? Ask the class, or 
pupil to distinguish between high and low sounds; loud and soft 
sounds; long and short sounds; fast and slow sounds; distant and 
near sounds ; clear and dull sounds ; harsh and sweet sounds ; even 
and uneven sounds; Another test can be given by humming a 
familiar song, all w^ho recognize song, raise hands. The formal 
study of intervals is then introduced orally; The first step is imi- 
tation as in the rote song. The teacher sings a group of notes with 
La, Loo or syllable names, class and individuals repeat; this is 
sometimes called tone-matching. Use ascending scale upon be- 
ginning this step. 
Key of G. Tone-Matching. 
a. Do, Sol; Do, Mi, Sol; Do, Sol, Mi; Sol, Mi, Do; Sol, Do, Sol, Do, Sol; 



116 MUSIC 

Do, Sol; Do, Fa; Do, Fa, Mi, Re, Do; Do, Fa, Do, Fa, Do; Do, Mi, Do; 
Do, Sol, Fa, Mi, Re, Do. 

b. (Use lower Sol). Do, Sol; Do, Sol, La, Si, Do; Do, La; Do, Sol; Do, 
Fa, Do; Do, Mi, Sol, (upper) Sol (lower). Do. 

Oral dictation follows imitation lessons. Teacher says, "Sing Do, Sol." 

Class responds using syllable names or sometimes La. Review all exercises 

given in first group for oral dictation. 

The following group can also be included in dictation work, teacher 

change number names as given to syllable names. 

Key of D. Dictation. 

8, 7, 6, 8—8, 7, 6, 5, 8—8, 7, 7, 8—8, 7, 6, 6, 7, 8—8, 7, 6, 5, 5, 6, 7, 8— 
1, 2, 1—1, 2, 3, 1—1, 2, 3, 4, 1—1,^2, 3, 4, 5, 1—1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 4, 5, 4, 3, 5, 
4, 3, 2, 5, 1—1, 2, 2, 1—1, 2, 3, 3, 2, 1—1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 3, 2, 1—1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 
1, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1—1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 4, 3, 5, 4, 3, 2, 5, 1—1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 
8, 7, 8—8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1—1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8—1, 3, 5, 8, 5, 3, 1—1, 4, 
6, 8, 6, 4, 1—1, 8, 1. 

c. Sing the scale down ; up ; loudly ; softly ; slowly ; rapidly ; repeating each 
tone; class and teacher alternating; individual scale singing. 

b. Rhythm Studies. 

The child is naturally rhythmic in movement, speech and 
song. He needs most a concrete form of expression which will 
bring into play his rhythmic sense. For this purpose the singing 
of graceful, rhythmic music is of greatest importance in establish- 
ing a sense of rhythm. Rhythmical physical exercises are also 
helpful. 

The recurring accent in poetry is helpful in gaining the idea 
of accent and measure. The Mother Goose Rhymes, Robert Louis 
Stevenson's Child's Garden of Verses, and many child lyrics by 
Eugene Field can be used in finding the rhythmic element. Tap 
the rhythm of the verses; sing verses. Tap the rhythm in follow- 
ing. Are they alike or different? 

/ a. Tick-tock; tick-tock; tick-tock. 

1 b. Rap-tap-tap; tit-tat-too. 

J a. Ding-dong; ding-dong; ding-dong. 

\ b. Lul-la-bye; lul-la-bye; lul-la-bye. 

How many times does the bell ring? (Ring two part measure, 
three-part measure and other forms.) 

Send one child to the board and let him indicate the rhythm 
by drawing downward strokes in time with the clapping of the 
class, using a stronger and longer stroke for the strong than for 
the weak pulses: (a) Let the strokes be made in time with the 
clapping; use different measure forms; (b) Let the class recite in 



MUSIC 117 

time with the clapping and board-work; strong, weak, strong, weak, 
or strong, weak, weak; giving a variety of measures. 

3. Visualizing the Song. (Primer in hands of pupils, second 
year.) The preparatory work leading to formal sight reading con- 
sists in visualizing many of the songs found in the music primer. 
This step is necessary to make pupils familiar with the use of a 
music reader. 

1. Teacher write song upon blackboard. 2. Pupils count notes 
upon first line, second line and other degrees of the staff; pupils 
count measures; pupils find highest note; lowest note; longest and 
shortest notes; which note is most often repeated; in how many 
places skips are to be found. 3. Class open books to song ; teacher 
indicate a note upon blackboard; pupils find the same in books. 
Teacher name a word; pupils find the same in books; point to a 
word upon blackboard; find the same in books; count the number 
of staffs upon page; find the first staff, fourth staff, etc.; find third 
measure, second staff; name a word belonging to above measure; 

find word ; describe where it is found. 4. Develop the 

idea of the phrase; teacher sing first phrase, then second; are they 
alike ? dift'erent ? Discover number of different melodies in a song ; 
sketch rhythm; notice accent. 

4. Sight Reading. 

Text: Charts A and B and Primer, Natural Music Course. 

The lessons upon the chart should be brief, and presented as 
in the reading class. All theory should be omitted, the lesson 
serving only as a mode of thought expression, being as yet merely 
a simple language lesson. 

We should seek to find a simple text for the first steps ; impress 
familiarity with the scale form, key signature, key-note, and time 
signature ; read exercise with syllable names until thoroly familiar ; 
look for melodic phrase and rhythmic form. 

a. Scale drill. Place scale upon blackboard and give rapid 
drill upon intervals and skips. 

b. Chart drill. 1. Teacher point; 2. Child point; 3. Find high- 
est, lowest, or shortest note; 4. Class select exercise; 5. In- 
dividuals sing; 6. One row sing — all others listen, etc.; 7. 
Teacher sing without naming exercise — Class indicate 
exercise ; 8. Teacher point out a group of notes — take away 



118 MUSIC 

pointer, class singing from memory ; 9. Use syllables — La 
— Loo-Koo — Vowels — Words; 10. Call for tones by nam- 
ing degree of staff. The chart work can alternate with 
sight reading in the Primer later in the year, 
c. Primer drill. 1. Clap the hands at the first note of each 
measure ; 2. Sing the key-note each time and think the others ; 
3. Sing the first measure, think the second, alternate; 4. 
Beat time, accent the first note in each measure; 5. How 
many beats are there in a measure ? 6. What is the time sig- 
nature? 7. What does the upper figure represent? the lower? 
8. Name the first note in the exercise, the last note. 9. Does 
the exercise go up or down, or both? 10. Is the key-note sung 
more than once? 11. Where is the key-note? 12. Are there 
any skips? 13. What do we call the figures at the beginning 
of the exercise? 14. Sing the exercise forward and backward; 
class and teacher alternate. 

5. Individual Singing. 

Thruout the school course, individual singing is of importance. 
In first and second grades the daily music lesson ought to consist 
of individual as well as class singing. In the upper grades have 
separate class rooms for boys and girls during individual singing 
since the changing voice is apt to lead to embarrassing moments in 
the music hour. The success of the music course must be meas- 
ured by individual results. 

6. Monotone Singing. 

The monotone element is found in every subject of a common 
school course. The monotone child is usually the backward child, 
requiring more individual attention than does the average member 
of a class. However, no work is more effective than the cure of 
the monotone, especially in the First Grade. If all monotone chil- 
dren were trained to sing correctly during the first year, or in the 
early part of the course, the future classes would be much more 
evenly graded than at present. The First Grade music class ought 
to be divided into two sections or choirs, each having separate music 
periods. Begin in the monotone class (or section one) with indi- 
vidual work; try first of all to change the speaking tone (the one 
usually employed by the monotone) to the singing tone. In order 
to accomplish this, use the work as outlined in the Ear Training 



MUSIC 119 

Course. Time is well spent upon the monotone class as has been 
shown in schools in which this work has been attempted. 
7. Examination in Music. 

During each term there should be given an individual test upon 
work accomplished. If a pupil can sing the scale correctly, read 
an exercise intelligently, sing a song with spirit, and with good 
tonal and rhythmic qualities he has mastered the fundamental ele- 
ments in music. 

INTERMEDIATE AND GRAMMAR GRADES 

The work in the upper grades consists of vocal exercises ; sight 
reading of exercises and songs in the diatonic, chromatic, and minor 
forms of the scale; rhythm of simple and divided beat; simple and 
compound measure; unison and part singing; and advanced ear 
training and manuscript exercises. Independent work on the part 
of both class and individual pupils is now possible, this being es- 
pecially evident in part singing. The most important problem in 
the seventh and eighth grades is the treatment of the adolescent 
voice. (See notes upon the adolescent voice.) 
1. Ear Training. 

Text : The Manuscript Series of Vocal Music — Robert Fores- 
man. 

1. Copied Work. (All Grades). 

Copy from blackboard (1) the scale; (2) simple exercise; 
(3) song. 

2. Dictation Exercise. (All Grades). 

(1) a. Class write scale in which the dictation exercise is to 
be given; b. Teacher give directions for form of notation, 
and arrangement of exercise; c. Class sing the scale; d. 
Teacher sing the phrase with syllable "La;" class write 
notes; e. Test. Teacher read syllable names of notes 
and degrees of staff. (2) Draw the staff upon the 
blackboard; class or teacher sing phrase, or song with 
syllable "la", pupil reproducing the same upon black- 
board. 

3. Invention, or original work. (Intermediate and Grammar 

Grades.) 



120 MUSIC 

a. Complete a given melody; b. Com.plete notation of a song; 
c. Complete omitted measures of a song or exercise ; d. Fit 
a given poem to a given melody; e. Compose a poem to a 
given melody; f. Write an original melody. (Teacher indi- 
cate key, time signature, length of melody.) 

4. Memory Work. 

a. Write from memory nine scales commonly in use; b. 
Familiar song. 

5. Time Exercises. 

a. Add necessary time signatures to a given exercise; add 

necessary bars ; b. Re-write an entire song in a new time form. 

2. The Part Song. (Intermediate and Grammar Grades.) 

Text — The Music Reader as -usually employed — supplementary texts 
as given : The Laurel Song Reader — Tomlins, 60c ; The Lyric 
Song Book — Loomis, 60c; High School Song Book — Zeiner, 85c; 
The School Song Book — McConathy, 50c; One Hundred Folk 
Songs — Gilbert, 50c. 

In the Intermediate and Grammar Grades a study of national 
life becomes possible. A broader view is obtained thru the singing 
of folk songs, and music of a people. In the High school, musical 
form, and music as literature is possible. Part songs of different 
nations, selections from the oratorio and opera, and concerted 
works offer abundant material for the study of national and 
classical musical literature. 

The grade teacher comes in contact with an untrained musical 
taste, not a poor taste, simply immaturity in taste as in all other 
forms of class room work. Therefore, the selection of material is 
important since a fine taste in music is cultivated thru the use of 
songs which have a permanent literary and musical value. 

For the best results in class work, organize the school so that 
soprano, alto, tenor, and bass voices are grouped each day. 
National Holidays. At Thanksgiving time, Lincoln's birthday, 

Washington's birthday and Memorial Day the patriotic songs 

of our country ought to be sung in our Public Schools. 

Text — Patriotic Songs — Brewer. 

VI. Organization of Work Thruout the Grades. 

The topics as outlined are presented thruout the grades. The 
work simply increases in difficulty as the pupil advances, the texts 



MUSIC 121 

furnishing progressive material as far as is possible. Methods of 
presenting each step are also included in advanced music readers. 
Texts. 

First Year. 

Rote Songs. _ | ]J°lo^dy. 

Ear training exercises. Rhvthm 

Chart A — Natural Music Series. 
Second Year. 

Modern Music Primer — Part I. ■ 

Rote Songs. 

Ear training exercises — same as in First Year. 

Visualizing. 

Chart B — Natural Music Series. 
Third Year. 

Melodic First Reader. 

Modern Primer — Parts II, III. 

Rote Songs. f Voice. 

Ear training exercises. I Rhvtlun 

Sight Reading. (^ Dictation. 

Fourth Year. 

Book One, Eleanor Smith Music Course. 

Modern First Book. 

Ear training exercises — same as in Third Year. 

o- v-i r) J- / Exercises. 

Sight Reading | g^^^^ 

Fifth Year. 

Book Two, Eleanor Smith Music Course. 

Modern Second Book — Part I. 

Ear training, Dictation and Manuscript exercises. Book I., Manu- 
script Series of Vocal Music — Robert Foresman. 
Sixth Year. 

Book Two, Eleanor Smith Music Course. 

Modern Second Book — Part II. 

Ear training — Outline same as in Fifth Year. 

Seventh Year. 

Book Three, Eleanor Smith Music Course. 

Modern Third Book — Part I. 

Ear training — Book II. Manuscript Series of Vocal Music. 

Eighth Year. 

Book Four, Eleanor Smith Music Course. 

Modern Third Book — Part III. 

Ear training — Book III. Manuscript Series of Vocal Music. 

VII. The Daily Routine of a Music Lesson. 

1. Signal for attention, two taps, or quietly saying. Attention! 



122 MUSIC 

2. Signal for position. The pupils should sit or stand in a position 
of attention. The body should be erect and alert, in order that vocal 
organs can respond easily. The throat should be well opened so that tone 
production is easy. 

The book should be held so that the lower edge rests upon the desk; 
the index finger of the right hand should be placed along the right edge 
of the book, and be used in tapping the time. 

3. Upon beginning the vocal work use the pitch-pipe in finding the 
pitch of key-note; use the baton in giving time and tempo. 

Order of Lesson, Primary Grade. 

1. Breathing exercises and vocal drill 1 minute 

2. Rote Song (review) 4 minutes 

3. Ear training exercises 1 minute 

4. Visualizing of song 1 minute 

5. Sight reading 2 minutes 

6. Rote song (new) 3 minutes 

The steps can alternate if necessary. Thus, first day 1, 2, 3, 5; second day 
1, 2, 4, 6; third day 2, 3, 5, 6, etc. 

Individual and class singing should alternate thruout the lesson. 

Order of Lesson. Intermediate and Grammar Grades. 

1. Breathing exercises and vocal drill 1 minute 

2. Song (review) 4 minutes 

3. Sight reading. Exercises and Song; discuss scale form, key 

signature, key-note, time signature, rhythm form.... 6 minutes 

4. Song Interpretation (New Song) 4 minutes 

5. Ear Training 3 minutes 

VIII. A Course in Music Appreciation is given during the daily 
chorus practice period, the illustrations being used for all 
special events of the school year, including commencement 
exercises. 



DRAWING 123 



DRAWING 

I. INTRODUCTION 

Any education, to be really effective, must rest upon the broad 
culture of the intellectual, aesthetic, and moral powers of the mind. 
Drawing appeals forcibly to all these powers, and on this appeal 
rests its chief claim to a place in the school course. Pedagogically 
speaking, drawing is not a talent possessed by the few, but it is a 
means of expression common to all, thru the use of which may be 
developed observation, self-activity, concentration, imitation, in- 
ventive and creative power. 

DRAWING IN THE PRIMARY GRADES 

Drawing in the primary grades should be as free and spon- 
taneous as early speech. It should show the development of the 
individual instead of the object merely. 

Early results are crude, but children should not omit doing 
things which they cannot do well. The desire to express should 
arouse proper study thru guidance by the teacher. Variety in 
the objects drawn will eliminate conventionality and induce critical 
study and observation. 

Imaginative and Illustrative Drawing. From the first 
the child's impulse is to create, to express graphically his ideas and 
impressions of things. It is that energy, common to every child, 
which leads him to express his individual thought, feeling, and 
experience in some definite form. Imaginative drawing is an aid 
to all other studies; it should not exist as a separate activity, but 
as a friend and playmate of every study, growing itself mainly by 
helping others. Its purpose is to develop the creative power of 
the child. In the expression of thoughts and in the making of 
exact records, drawing is as important a mode of expression as lan- 
guage. 



124 DRAWING 



Exercises in telling stories without words are wonderfully 
helpful in developing the power of expression. Illustrate games, 
action of animals, the trades, as the blacksmith, the shoemaker, 
the farmer. These exercises in dramatic action should be followed 
by expression in drawing. Stories which stimulate the imagina- 
tion to definite pictorial expression are nature stories, classic myths. 
Mother Goose melodies, and Indian folk-lore. Selections from 
child literature of Longfellow, Eugene Field, James Whitcomb 
Riley, Robert Louis Stevenson, and many others are excellent. 

To teach this subject of spontaneous story drawing the teacher 
must be a keen observer. He must be able to express his own ideas, 
and, to teach seeing, he must himself see. The child must be un- 
hampered by many directions as to what to draw, in placing or size. 
He must not be shown pictures to assist him in his efforts. All the 
children's drawings must be summed up under the words, impres- 
sion, EXPRESSION. Great care must be taken in selecting stories 
for illustration. Stories should be short, suggestive, rather than 
descriptive, having few dramatic situations. They should in a 
measure be within a child's experience and of direct interest to him. 

No exercise employs the observing faculties of the child better 
than the drawing of natural things or objects, as their infinite 
variety of form and color demands his closest attention in his ef- 
forts to picture them. Nature study connects science, nature, and 
literature. 

Children love life and action. Rapid sketching from nature of 
plant and animal life should begin in the lowest grade. The range 
of subjects must be large, consisting chiefly of scenes of human 
interest, with human figures in action illustrating episodes in his- 
tory and literature, events in the children's own lives, plants, foli- 
age, vegetables, fruits, seeds, insects, and animals. Trees and 
landscape study should be included under this topic also. These 
all are of special interest because they are what the pupils read 
about and study the most, and are the most beautiful to them. 

At first the work tends to be conventional, but repeated effort 
thru these early grades will result in greater realism, and will in 
the subsequent work do away with hardness of line and figure. 
Freedom of expression is the keynote to success in all this work. 

Form study should come last and not first. It should consist 
of building with blocks, constructing in paper and clay objects of 



DRAWING 125 



interest in every day life, drawing of groups of common objects, 
these being carefully selected for their form and color. Objects 
should not be analyzed for their shapes, surfaces, and edges. All 
such knowledge will come naturally thru their uses. Form study 
of common objects and type foniis leads to a classification of form, 
and gives form ideals. 

Picture study begins in the first year and runs thruout the 
entire course. During the first three years materials for such 
study should be found on the school-room walls, in the form of 
small photographs and prints placed before the pupils. Pictures 
should not be studied in an analytic way in these grades, but the 
interest should center in the thought of the artist as related to the 
home life of the child, in animal life, and in the beauties of nature 
which surround him. 

Color is studied in its relation to nature and to design. School 
and home environment influence this. The leading colors in the 
spectrum are studied, and for the purpose of fixing these colors 
standard tablets and colored crayons are used. The three color 
box in water colors is also used, and with this the child is able thru 
right guidance to study and interpret color as he finds it in plant 
and animal life, in the landscape in its various changes of season, 
in manufactured objects, and to represent the beauty of color as 
shown in design. 

THE MEDIUMS TO BE USED IN THE PRIMARY GRADES 

The mediums or materials to be used in drawing must be de- 
termined by the nature of the subjects to be drawn, as well as by 
the needs of the pupils. Teachers cannot confine themselves to 
fixed methods or mediums. It is for them to make the child feel 
the power given him, to lead him to express himself directly and 
freely. It matters little by what means it is done; it is the spirit 
of the work not the medium that is of the most importance to him. 

Children crave reality. Hence the child must be given medi- 
ums which express reality, not mere outline. Soft plastic medi- 
ums, as clay, colored crayons, colored chalk, colored paper, water 
colors, and charcoal, are the best with which to express mass, and 
with these mediums his creative activity has the largest possible 
freedom. 



126 DRAWING 



1. Clay modeling. Natural or manufactured objects. This 
may relate to form study for its own sake or it may illustrate some 
lesson, as a nature lesson, imaginative or illustrative dra^ving in 
reading or language. Large models are encouraged. Early work 
is done entirely with the fingers. Early work should be models of 
natural forms, later manufactured objects; geometric solids should 
rarely be attempted in primary grades on account of the difficulty 
of making them accurate. 

Clay modeling cultivates observation, arousing the activities 
of the child ; accuracy in the perception of form ; dexterity of hand ; 
sense of form and proportion; greater power in drawing, due to 
necessary study of the object while modeling; love and appreciation 
of beauty in form; enjoyment derived thru creative power; con- 
centration of attention. 

Sand modeling on the sand-table is excellent for illustrative 
work in geography, reading, and all illustrative work in the primary 
grades. 

2. Colored crayons and colored chalk. These are a 
more ready means for picturing objects in color, with very young 
children, than water colors. 

3. Free hand paper cutting. In color and in black and 
gray. This medium leads to the study of masses of form and rela- 
tion of size and detail. Color is studied thru color combinations 
as seen in nature and in pictorial combinations. Stories are told 
with the scissors, using black or some neutral toned paper. All 
this work must be mounted on suitable backgrounds. 

4. Water colors. The three color box and brush number 
three. In this medium the mixture of color and the handling of 
the brush are more difficult than work done with colored chalk or 
crayon. Using the brush for ink brush work leads the pupil to be- 
come acquainted somewhat with the management of the brush. 
Early work in water colors should include the rendering of large 
objects and landscapes; work in which detail is not essential. 
Simplicity of expression and directness in the handling of medium 
are the important features of this work. 

5. Charcoal drawings on large sheets of manilla paper give 
the child a freedom to express form, size, and color. 



DRAWING 127 



6. The blackboard is a very ready means of expression in 
drawing, both for the teacher and for the pupil. It insures a free- 
dom which no other medium can give. The blackboard should be 
very frequently used for object drawing and illustrative work. 

7. When the lead pencil is used it should be a very soft 
grade, so that it may express both color and form, thus avoiding 
hardness of figure and outline. 

In the primary grades the drawing occupies twenty minutes 
each school day in the week. Good reference material — Prang 
Manuals for First and Second Year, Monthly Primary Plans in the 
School Art Book, Art Education text-books for the First and 
Second Year^. 

II. SUBJECT MATTER 

FIRST GRADE 

FALL TERM 

Much blackboard drawing should be encouraged at this time. 
It can be done on a large scale because it admits of more freedom 
than other mediums. Some time each day should be devoted to 
this. Color is taught by the use of colored tablets and water color 
crayons. Brush work is taught with writing ink or neutral colors 
from the water color box. In Nature work study seeds and seed- 
houses, fruits, vegetables, nature in the landscape; October and its 
beauty of color in landscape, tree, and leaf. In November the 
thought of the harvest, corn and grains, fruits, and vegetables. 
Parts from the story of Hiawatha relating to the harvest. In ani- 
mal study, the squirrel and the turkey. The winter homes of 
caterpillars. The storing of grain and food for the winter. Migra- 
tion of birds. 

Illustrative work, relating this to block-building, sand-table 
modeling. The Life of the Pilgrims. Nature poems illustrated. 
Making of seed boxes. 

Clay modeling. This is imaginative and illustrative; cocoons, 
animals, fruits. 

Paper folding and fsee-hand paper cutting. Imaginative and 
illustrative. 



128 DRAWING 



Sketching in colored crayons flowers, berries, seeds, and fruits; 
also the beauties in nature as shown in the landscape in trees and 
foliage. 

Teach drawing of objects like sphere and cube, relating these 
to block-building, natural forms, and common objects. This re- 
quires critical observation. Teach paper folding; a market basket, 
a ship, a Puritan cape and cap. 

Picture study. Harvest scenes by Millet, Jules Breton, and 
Broughton's pictures of Pilgrims. No technical study should be 
made of pictures, but they may frequently serve as a background 
for a morning talk or for an illustrative lesson. 

Let the drawing lesson frequently follow the morning talk. 
This may be in the nature of imaginative or illustrative drawing 
with mediums which are the most suitable to work demanded. 

WINTER -TERM 

Continue blackboard work. Study the evergreen tree. 

Paper cutting; for illustration, snow flakes. Cat and dog are 
studied; action studies made from life. Games of children; indoor 
and outdoor games, action study. No formal posing. Imaginative 
drawing continued; illustrative drawing used in all the depart- 
ments of work. Building a fireplace, a blockhouse, a bridge, a 
train; illustrate this in paper cutting also. Christmas gifts; hand 
work, constructive ability. Study of pictures continued; home life;' 
animal life; the Madonna and Christ-child. 

In the study of the landscape at this season considerable at- 
tention should be given to proper composition. 

Object study. This study to be worthy of its place in the 
school must show the individual thought and expression of the pu- 
pil. The teacher must see thru the child's eyes to be able to guide 
and direct him to expression. 

Choose large objects good in color and form. Study size, pro- 
portion, relation, and position of detail to whole. Charcoal 
sketches. Color work in paper and crayon. 

Draw from a pose, make it represent a character or an occupa- 
tion. Local winter birds. How they live and obtain their food. 

St. Valentine's Day; a post-man, a letter box. Make valen- 
tines. 



DRAWING 129 



Playing of games and illustrating soldiers in pose and marching. 
The study of the flag. Block-building; relate this to history study. 

The children of the cold studied; how they live; their houses, 
the landscape, how they dress, what they eat and how they obtain 
their food; games that these children play, winter sports. Illus- 
trative and imaginative. Incidents in the lives of the children of 
the cold. Illustrate these in clay, paper, blackboard drawings, 
sand table modelings and constructions, and in charcoal sketches. 

Designing; borders for book covers, handkerchiefs. Paper 
folding; diameters, diagonals, and the pasting of squares and tri- 
angles. Use blocked paper, especially where the geometric figure 
serves as a basis for the decoration. Children's portfolios contain 
by this time sketches from life of animals and insects, also fall fruits 
and flowers. These make very good units for decorative repeats. 

SPRING TERM 

Illustrated stories. March weather; the wind. Study the 
willow tree, pussy willows, and other budding twigs. Awakening 
of all things; return of the birds, the spring landscape. The rain- 
bow; color study with the prism. Moths and butterflies. Bulbs, 
seeds. Continue board work in all this study. Children in action 
from class games, dramatic poses, occupations. 

In designing, use is made of natural forms, plant, animal, or 
insect. Designs are made for book covers, folders for nature exer- 
cises, simple borders, and surface designs. Study for this purpose 
repetition. 

Paper-cutting for illustrative work; germination of seeds. 
Brush ink work is also excellent for this. Crayon and charcoal 
drawings, water colors, using the three color box. Neutral colors 
used occasionally. 

Placing within given spaces landscapes, objects in groups, 
plants, and flowers for space relation. The tulip is studied for de- 
signing purposes. Its size and simplicity of form commend it for 
this purpose. Its vividness of color makes it also attractive to the 
child. 

Block-building continued. Interest may center about the 
birdhouse. Let children build this. 



130 DRAWING 



Making in paper and cardboard May baskets, and folders for 
drawing work to be taken home. Picture frames and small folders 
for picture study. 

Animals to be studied; the rabbit, the chicken, the turtle. 

Clay-modeling; the rabbit, the butterfly. 

Spring flowers; the teacher choosing the larger flowers, study- 
ing occasionally the entire plant with its blossoms. 

SECOND AND THIRD GRADES 

FALL TERM 

The mediums in these grades are like those of the first grade, 
with the addition of the lead pencil and more water color work and 
less free-hand paper cutting. Brush and ink used more freely also. 

The work in these grades is continued much as in the first 
grade. New and more difficult objects are given. The work done 
by the children should show more freedom in the handling of the 
material, greater skill in representing objects, better composition 
and space relation. The self-activity of the child rightly stimu- 
lated from the first to create, to illustrate, and to see should mani- 
fest itself in every department of this work. 

Water colors are used from the very first, the work in the 
early fall being largely from nature. Make color analysis of all 
things studied directly from nature. Make color charts. The 
study of the landscape from nature study and from description. 
The study of leaves, flowers and insects; these to be used in ele- 
mentary and applied design of book covers, program covers, port- 
folio ornaments. Simple geometric forms and figures introduced 
relating to the ellipsoid. The geometric plan traced in seeds and 
seed vessels. Making of seed boxes and cases. The use of insect 
and animal life in design. Use blocked paper for the purpose of 
aiding the modification of units of design. 

Illustrate the changes in the dandelion plant, the milkweed, 
and the thistle. 

Color study is continued. The spectrum with tints and shades 
is studied. Colored tablets for color arrangements and color re- 
lations. Colored crayons and water colors are used to make color 
combinations. 

In October some time is given to the study of trees and their 
placing in a landscape. 



DRAWING 131 



Illustrative work relating to the season. Imaginative draw- 
ing. This work must be entirely unhampered by the teacher; the 
pupil must tell his story in his own way. Criticisms may be made 
of incorrect proportions for the purpose of stimulating observation 
and self-activity. This kind of work may relate to the reading 
lesson. Brush ink -work is excellent for this. 

Study the apple tree. Make general study of other fruit trees. 

In November; harvest scenes, the gathering in of the harvest. 
Landscapes illustrative of reading lessons, nature study, and imag- 
inative drawing. The corn especially is studied. Fruits and vege- 
tables are painted, drawn, and modeled. The life of the Puritans 
illustrated in sand-table modeling, making in clay, cardboard, and 
block-building. A costume pose in action. 

Birds and their migration. 

Picture study; harvest scenes, landscapes for composition, and 
tree study. Choose for these the best pictures by the best artists. 
Boughton's pictures for historic interest, composition, and costume 
study. 

WINTER TERM 

Drawing from groups of large and interesting objects. Char- 
coal study, colored crayons and water colors. Some blackboard 
work should be attempted frequently; this insures greater freedom, 
hence greater confidence. Study a piece of furniture; this is for 
the purpose of study of size, proportion, and appearance thru 
position. Pencil drawing should be encouraged. Block-building 
of historic buildings. Rapid sketching of a single object placed in 
various positions. These sketches should be large and made in 
charcoal. In a single lesson each child should make from three to 
four different sketches, each showing the careful study in appear- 
ance as influenced by position. Block-building continued, sketch- 
ing results. Study of objects for placing and color combinations. 
The cone, pyramid, and triangular prism are studied with a review 
of the first year solids. Children should be led to see that how an 
object appears to them is more essential than how it actually looks 
in its individual parts. Encourage the making of sketches of inter- 
esting objects. All object study should lead toward better work 
in illustrative drawing. 

Study of the winter landscape; color, composition, the sunset. 
Study of trees in winter; the pine tree. 



132 DRAWING 



Figure study; the poses being more varied, the pupils working 
with pencil, charcoal, water colors in color and neutral. 

Construction work in paper and other suitable materials for 
Christmas gifts. 

Picture study appropriate to the Christmas season; mounting 
of pictures, making of folders, and frames for pictures. 

Action pictures; winter sports, illustrative and imaginative 
sketches made. Animal studies from Hfe; Barye and Landseer are 
studied. 

Eskimo life ; reading lessons are illustrated. How the birds are 
fed in winter. Snow crystals ; studying in these the geometric basis. 

Designing; space relation studied in plaids and other simple 
surface designs, opposition of line, combination of colors. The use 
of plant, animal and insect life in decoration; naturaHstic as well as 
modified treatment of these units in border and surface decorations. 

SPRING TERM 

March weather; the wind, water scenes, ships, windmills. 
Imaginative and illustrative drawings made of these. 

Poses; dramatic action. Study games. 

Buds and twigs in brush ink drawing and pencil sketching. 

Colors studied, orange and blue in tints and shades ; decorative 
use of color: how combinations should be made. 

Landscape; study of the rainbow; relate this to the season. 
Illustrations in geography in painting and drawing. 

Seeds and their germination, pencil and brush ink drawings. 

Returning of the birds. Children should study the early birds, 
especially the robin. Paint and draw from observations made. 
Repeat this study when opportunity affords and it will lead toward 
very creditable work. Aim to have the criticisms rather lead to 
further and more careful study. Such study will eventually lead 
to better sketching. 

Spring flowers drawn and painted. Pupils should be required 
to make good placing on paper, special attention being given thru- 
out this work to arrangement and placing. Flowers placed within 
limited areas. Flowers used in design; surface and border designs 
made for definite purposes. Entire plant studied. 

Domestic animals ; picture study of animal and bird life ; illus- 
trate the pigeon-house. 



DRAWING 133 



Study pictures relating to season; Dupre, Millet, and Breton 
have painted excellent pictures relating to this season. Panto- 
mime pictures are excellent here. 

FOURTH AND FIFTH GRADEvS 

FALL TERM 

The pupils in these grades, while following somewhat similar 
work to that carried on in the earlier grades, should show greater 
freedom in the use of different mediums. Greater mechanical skill 
should be required as well as more artistic rendering in all work. 
More definite and detailed work is required in the illustration of 
geography and science work. 

It is not a greater amount of drawing which will bring better 
results in expression, but better seeing and thinking. The illus- 
trative work is of little value unless it is the expression of thought. 
By. the use of drawings, illustrations, and the plants themselves 
the pupils should become interested in the beauty of line in the 
growth of plants. Study of artistic reproductions of Japanese 
prints showing the simple rendering of plant and animal life will 
greatly influence the pupils' work in spirit and freedom of execu- 
tion. Fall plants and flowers should be studied and drawn in color, 
in monochrome, and in brush ink drawings. Plants should be se- 
lected for beauty in form and color, this followed by using only 
most beautiful parts if plant is large. Study arrangements of 
plants within given areas for decorative treatment. This requires 
individual creation in space relation thru the division of spaces and 
surface areas into vertical and horizontal paneling, and the placing 
of simple landscape features, flowers, vines, and grasses within 
them. Designs for books and program covers should be made. 
Insects — the grasshopper, the cricket, and the beetle — are studied 
for decorative treatment. 

The landscape is studied in color and in monochrome, in pencil, 
and in charcoal. Composition in this is studied in relation to color 
tones and values. Illustrations in pencil, pen and ink, and other 
suitable mediums should aid geography, written compositions, and 
other studies. 

Study of the principles of perspective as illustrated in cyhn- 
drical forms and rectangular forms is here introduced. Develop 



134 DRAWING 



self -activity, concentration, observation. Lead pupils thru free 
expression of what they see to discover first the principles. Select 
very large objects for this study. The geometric solids should 
follow the study of common objects. 

Picture study is continued. Japanese prints of flowers, in- 
sects, and birds are studied. Several of Millet's pictures are stud- 
ied, especially those which relate to the harvest season. These will 
materially aid the pupils in the further study of composition in 
the landscape. 

WINTER TERM 

In the winter term the general plan of work relates to the more 
critical study of common objects. These should always be chosen 
for their utility or for their beauty of form and color. Selection 
and placing of objects should be considered, also the proper lighting. 

In connection with the sketching of groups of objects the study 
of light and shade is begun. The best mediums for this work are 
charcoal or crayon, and water colors. The light and shade should 
be rendered in broad simple tones with no attempt at showing de- 
tails. Begin with crayon or pencil point, water colors to follow. 
Light and shade values and color tones studied. Relation of light 
and shade values in composition. Balance of tone, balance of 
color in composition. Relate this to picture study also. 

Historic art and ornament are introduced here. This study 
relates to simple styles of architecture and ornament as seen in 
buildings, in photographs of buildings, and in casts. 

Drawing from the pose. This should be for costume study or 
to illustrate some occupation. This work should be illustrated by 
artistic drawings from the pose. Study in this connection the 
pictures of such artists and illustrators as will aid in pose drawing. 

The dog is studied in pencil, crayon, and in charcoal. Memory 
drawings, sketching rapidly with straight lines only. Brush work 
in neutral wash drawings to obtain mass and general form. Rapid 
sketches showing the animal in different positions, merely repre- 
senting action, as well as drawings showing more deliberate study 
and consequently more detailed study of animal. 

Construction drawings showing simple working drawings of 
common objects; this followed by making in paper and wood. 

Illustrative and imaginative drawings are continued in geog- 
raphy, nature study, and reading. 



DRAWING 135 



In picture study Murillo and his pictures are studied, those 
picturing child life being of special interest here. 

SPRING TERM 

Color is Studied in its relation to design. Color tones, color 
harmonies and relations as seen in the spectrum with their tints 
and shades are studied. In design plaids and surface decoration 
are made. Historic art relating to design is studied and patterns 
for stained glass windows are made. 

The landscape is studied with sjcy and clouds. 

Buds and twigs, sprouting seeds. These should be drawn in 
pencil, in brush and ink, or in pen and ink. Special attention 
should be given to the arrangement and proper mounting of this 
material. 

Bird Hfe of the locahty should be studied thru the use of 
museum specimens and observations made of the birds as they 
return in the spring. Considerable illustrative work may be done 
in connection with this study. The moth and the butterfly are 
studied and are treated in a conventional manner in design. 

SIXTH AND SEVENTH GRADES 

FALL TERM 

Less time is given to blackboard work and more to water colors 
and pencil drawing. Clay is omitted except when used for some 
special study in design. Much of the illustrative work is done in 
pen and ink. The study of some of the best modern illustrators 
and their methods of work is taken up at this time. The Japanese 
art of drawing with the brush is studied. In this study drawings 
are made of seeds and seed-pods, grasses and vines, insects and 
animal life. Natural forms of all kinds are also studied and 
sketched in pencil, crayon, and water colors; the aim is to lead the 
pupils to work directly and freely with the mediums best suited to 
the subjects studied. 

The landscape is sketched in all of its changes of color, and 
color values are illustrated in charcoal gray and in sepia, in crayon 
and pencil. Some outdoor sketching is attempted. 

Elementary and applied designs are made. Flat washes of 
color for decorative purposes are introduced. Plant forms, animals, 
and insects are used for designing book covers, portfoUo-covers, and 



136 DRAWING 



for the purpose of note book illustrations. Abstract treatment of 
animal, insect, and plant life. Use of blocked paper for this pur- 
pose. Decorative treatment of the landscape. Study mural art 
and its decorative qualities. "American Mural Art" as given by 
Pauline King is an excellent book to study 

WINTER TERM 

Study of composition in the landscape, making of window 
sketches, the study of common objects. The materials and medi- 
ums to be used in this instruction should be determined by the 
nature of the subjects to be drawn, as well as by the needs of the 
pupils. The pencil and crayon point with occasional use of colored 
crayons and water colors are the most convenient and best medi- 
ums for much of this work. 

Perspective principles are analyzed and illustrated. Choose 
large objects of good color and design for this purpose. 

Form and color in correct compositions within given areas, 
the study of light and shade, and the value of background and 
foreground illustrated. 

Historic art as illustrated in architecture and ornament is given 
with special study in Greek, Roman, and Byzantine art. 

The study of pictures is continued. 

Illustrated work in geography, history, and science. Making 
of portfolios, mounting of pictures suitable for picture study and 
illustration. 

The human figure studied. Class poses for action and costume 
study. 

Constructive design and working drawings as applied to work 
in manual training are drawn in full size and to scale. 

SPRING TERM 

The work done this term relates somewhat to the season, but 
the latter is not so closely followed as in the lower grades. Con- 
siderable time is given to rapid sketching in pencil and crayon, con- 
necting this especially with the illustrative work. These sketches 
are later completed in pen and ink and in wash drawings. Color is 
not used as frequently here as in the lower grades, but some time is 
given to the study of tone in color and its application in nature and 
in art. 



DRAWING 137 



Spring flowers are drawn and painted. The beauty of line is 
studied in the plant as a whole and in its parts. The study of de- 
sign is continued. 

Color is translated in wash drawings, in charcoal gray, and 
sepia, and designs are made for printed fabrics, stained glass, rugs, 
and wall paper. 

The spring landscape is studied and is painted and drawn dur- 
ing its various changes. The landscapes of Corot especially are 
studied. 

The Prang Teachers' Manuals for the sixth and seventh grades 
are frequently used for reference. 

EIGHTH GRADE 

FALL TERM 

In the early work done in the fall fruits and flowers are sketched 
in the various mediums. Considerable brush ink work on rice 
paper and other suitable paper is done. Vines, fruits, flowers, 
foliage, and grasses are treated in a decorative manner, in areas 
adapted to the material chosen. Skill in selection of material and 
adapting it to a purpose is required from the pupils. The study of 
Japanese brush drawings and Japanese prints is very helpful here. 

Pupils in the higher grades begin to understand their own lim- 
itations and those of the different mediums. Then they become 
interested in the adaptation of means to an end. They become 
interested in line, in tone. Considerable work is now done in flat 
tones for all kinds of designing purposes. Surface decorations, de- 
signs for limited areas, as book covers, magazine covers, and for 
various other applied purposes. Working in flat tones for posters 
and general illustrative effects. Tile and carving designs, rug pat- 
terns, and rug making studied. Stained glass patterns are made 
and harmony and beauty in color combinations are studied. 

Outdoor sketching. Principles in perspective discovered and 
analyzed. Building and street scenes sketched. The pupils must 
learn to pick out interesting and picturesque bits of nature. The 
teacher should aid in making suggestions as to what to look for and 
how to put the essentials in the sketch, directly and effectively. 
The greatest problem is to see things simply and to select the most 



138 DRAWING 



important parts from a mass of detail. To learn what to omit is a 
very important part of outdoor sketching. Pupils keep sketch- 
books, recording from time to time materials which will aid in il- 
lustrative work in various other school subjects. The lead pencil 
is the most convenient medium for all this work. It may be trans- 
lated into pen and ink work and into wash drawings. Study of 
trees in various mediums showing the simple treatment of masses 
of foliage. Pictures by the best landscape painters as well as book 
and magazine illustrations will aid greatly in this work. The pupils 
should be taught to observe correctly and in turn to correctly record 
these impressions. Whatever in nature can be utilized to express 
an ideal of beauty, that the pupils should lay hold of. Paint the 
landscape in its various changes in the fall. Make compositions 
Illustrating good space relations and good color values. 

WINTER TERM 

Sketching from common objects of all kinds, cylindrical, conical, 
and rectangular. The principles underlying the appearance of ob- 
jects in all positions discussed and illustrated. This should only be 
'done when pupils, thru correct seeing and doing, have been able 
to discover many of these conditions in appearance for themselves. 

Still life studies. Simplicity is of the greatest importance 
both in the arrangement of the objects and in the lighting. Not 
more than three or four values should be attempted at first. Ob- 
jects should be selected for their beauty as well as for their form. 
Pencil and crayon drawings precede pen and ink sketching. Water 
colors used in flat tones. Study of values both in color and in 
neutral tone. 

Historic ornament and art is continued. The Saracenic art is 
studied and examples of design are copied. The Romanesque and 
Gothic art and architecture are also studied. Sketches of buildings 
and parts of buildings are made as well as detail of ornament. 
Some of the works of Raphael and Michael Angelo are studied and 
note book illustrations are made. Proper mounting of pictures is 
continued. 

Constructive design and working drawings are made to scale. 

Illuminated letters and ornamental initials are made. Illu- 
minated and hand-printed manuscripts are studied, especially those 



DRAWING 139 



relating to Romanesque and Gothic periods. Original designs for 
letters and stained glass are made; also designs to be applied to 
textiles, pottery and metal. 

Study of the human figure, action, proportions, and expression. 
Class poses. Costume studies. Pupils led to observe the works and 
methods of the masters, both in painting and in sculpture. Color 
and texture treated in light and dark tones. These give desired 
effects in a figure without the use of light and shade. Study the 
work of Boutet de Monvel and others. One indispensable need in 
all illustrative drawing is knowledge of the human figure and how 
to use it in action. Pupils must be able to use it in action freely. 

All illustrative work done in the various subjects should show 
the influence of instruction in drawing. 

SPRING TERM 

Pen and pencil sketching for illustrative work continued. 
Considerable sketching from nature. Bird life studied and sketches 
made from birds of locality. Spring flowers drawn and painted. 
Posters made for various school exercises. Written work illustrated 
and decorated with initial letters. Outdoor and memory sketches 
made in charcoal, pencil, pen and ink, and water colors. Color as 
related to its uses in design studied. Program covers made. 

The pencil should ever be the readiest means of expression in 
all drawing and illustrative work. There is no other medium which 
offers greater opportunity for the development of simplicity in 
manner, power and directness in treatment, and refinement in ex- 
pression than drawing with the lead pencil. A well rendered pencil 
drawing must be simple and direct, its beauty depending upon 
quality of line and purity and strength of tone. 

The study of art as outlined by the different systems in drawing 
is valuable to the grade teacher only as a guide to art expression. 
The art of feeling must penetrate into all expression work as litera- 
ture, science and history; and painting and drawing should be 
quite as freely used a means of expression as language. A system 
in drawing which encourages imitation only is not worthy of a 
place in a school course. 

The work as outlined in this course is influenced by the work 
as planned for the grades in Text books of Art Education, Prang; 
The Manual Arts for Elementary Schools, Hammock; The Parallel 



140 DRAWING 



Course, Hammock; The Applied Arts Drawing Books, Seegmiller; 
Principles of Design, Batchelder ; The Grammar of Ornament, Jones; 
Ornament and its Application, Day; History of Architecture, Fer- 
guson; History of Art, Goodyear; Schools and Masters of Painting, 
Radcliffe; Schools and Masters of Sculpture, Radcliffe; How to 
Study Pictures, Cafifin; American Masters of Painting, Caffin; 
American Masters of Sculpture, Cafhn; The History of Modern 
Painting, Muther; The Enjoyment of Art, Noyes; The Gate of Ap- 
preciation, Noyes; Old Masters and New, Cox; Art for Art's Sake, 
Van Dyke; The Meaning of Pictures, Van Dyke; How to Judge of a 
Picture, Van Dyke; The Enjoyment of Pictures, Emery; American 
Mural Painting, King; Lives of the Painters, Vasari; Composition, 
Dow; Theory and Practice of Teaching Art, Dow; The Principles 
of Art Education, Muensterberg; Art Education in the Public Schools 
of the United States, J. P. Haney, Editor. 



MANUAL TRAINING 141 



MANUAL TRAINING 

I. INTRODUCTION 

Impression and expression are so intimately related that both 
suffer if one is emphasized without reference to the other. To give 
a child an opportunity to express himself in material is a very great 
aid to his thought; and, vice versa, to have him think before he 
thus tries to express himself, is a great aid to the expression. Too 
much thinking, and too much doing are equally bad extremes. A 
thought may be the result of a moment's activity, or it may be the 
outcome of the activity of a life-time. The doing may take a 
longer or shorter time than the thinking. In thought we may take 
a trip to Europe in less time than it takes to tell it, while the actual 
doing requires physical effort of long duration. On the other hand, 
the thinking out of a collar button superior to any now on the mar- 
ket may take ten years, while the actual making of it may take only 
ten seconds. But the original thinking which invents new things 
such as the collar button, is comparatively rare, while imitative 
thinking is common to all the pupils coming under our care. Imi- 
tative work requires more time in the doing than in the thinking, 
and is common in manual training, although thinking always ac- 
companies the doing. 

Thus the great end of manual training is education thru doing 
guided by thinking; but there are other important ends as well, 
among which are (1) The revelation to the pupil of himself, and his 
capabiHties. This enables us to aid in the production of true and 
helpful citizens by guiding the pupil toward the realization of his 
purpose in life ; and (2) The cultivation of that nature which enables 
one to appreciate another's views, work, and condition. This tends 
to democracy — to oneness — to an understanding of the other 
person's situation. 

Our work in this subject is flexibly organized so that the dif- 
ficulties involved come within the pupils' interests, needs, and abili- 
ties. The possibilities, limitations, and applications in the use of 



142 MANUAL TRAINING 



raffia, reed, card, yarn, cardboard, clay, sheet-iron, brass, copper 
and wood, together with the typical and essential processes em- 
ployed, are emphasized. 

Tho construction and proportion are considered of first im- 
portance, typical methods of decoration are dealt with thruout the 
course as a recognition of the craving among all peoples for some 
form of ornamentation (even of merely useful articles) . Outlining 
with the veining tool, chip carving, mass coloring, flat and relief 
carving, inlaying, and applied metal work are used as the occasion 
allows, and the pupils' ability warrants. 

Correlation v/ith other subjects is encouraged, and pupils are 
allovv^ed to put in extra time upon pieces of independent work chosen 
as a result of some special interest. 

REFERENCES 

MAGAZINES 

For the Teacher: Manual Training Magazine, School Arts 
Book, International Studio, Woodcraft. 

For Pupils: Popular Mechanics, Popular Electricity, Electri- 
cian and Mechanic, Organization Reports; The Council of Super- 
visors of the Manual Arts, Eastern Art and Manual Training Asso- 
ciation, Western Drawing and Manual Training Association, Illinois 
Manual Arts Association. 

BOOKS 

♦General, (see below). 

Cardboard, weaving and basketry — 

Handwork Construction — Lina Eppendorff . 

Cardboad Construction — J. H. Trybom. 

Occupations for Little Fingers — Sage and Cooley. 

Industrial Work for Public Schools -'— Holton and Rollins. 

Hand-Loom Weaving — Mattie Phipps Todd. 

Primary Handwork — Wilhemina Seegmiller. 

Rug Weaving — Cadence Wheeler. 

Indian Basketry — James. 

Practical and Artistic Basketry — Laura Rollins Tinsley. 

The Basket Maker — Luther Weston Turner. 

How to Make Baskets — Mary White. 

Knotting and Splicing — Paul Hasluck. 
Clay work — 

Clay Work — Katherine M. Lester. 

Modeling in Public Schools — Walter Sargent. 



MANUAL TRAINING 143 



Clay Modeling and Plaster Casting — Paul N. Hasluck. 
Potters, Their Arts and Crafts — Sparks and Gandy. 
The Story of The Potter — C. F. Binns. 
How to Make Pottery — Mary White. 
The Appreciation of Sculpture — Russel Sturgis. 
American Masters of Sculpture — Charles H. Caffin. 
Mythology in Marble — Louie M. Bell. 

Michelangelo, Greek Sculpture, and Tuscan Sculpture — E. M. 
Hurl. 

Metal work — 

Copper Work — Augustus F. Rose. 

The Art Crafts for Beginners — Frank G. Sanford. 

Silverwork and Jewelry — H. Wilson. 

Venetian Iron Work Designs — Hammacher, Schlemmer & Co. 

Woodwork — 

Essentials of Woodworking — Ira S. Griffith. 

Beginning Woodwork — Clinton S. Van Deusen. 

Problems in Woodworking — M. W. Murray. 

Problems in Furniture Making — Fred D. Crawshaw. 

Sloyd for the Three Upper Grammar Grades — Gustaf Larson. 

Practical Wood-Carving — Eleanor Rowe. 

Chip-Carving — Gustaf Larson. 

Puzzles Old and New — Professor Hoffman. 

Handbook of the Trees of the Northern States and Canada — 

Romeyn B. Hough. 
Problems in Mechanical Drawing — Charles A. Bennett. 
Mechanical Drawing for Grammar Grades — Edmund Ketch- 

um. 

Design — 

Handbook of Ornament — F. S. Meyer. 
Composition — Arthur W. Dow. 
Principles of Design — Ernest A. Batchelder. 
Classroom Practice in Design — James P. Haney. 
A Handbook of Plant Form — Ernest E. Clark. 
Furniture Design and Draughting — A. C. Nye. 

General — 

Economics of Manual Training — Louis Rouillion. 
The Furnishing of a Modest Home — Fred H. Daniels. 
The City of Refuge — H. T. Bailey. 
The Appreciation of Architecture — Russell Sturgis. 

For the Pupils — 

Harpers Electricity Book for Boys — J. H. Adams. 

The Beard Series of Handicraft Books for Boys and Girls, 



144 MANUAL TRAINING 



The Thos. M. St. John Mechanical and Electrical Books for Boys 

Woodworking for Beginners — C. G. Wheeler. 

Magical Experiments — Arthur Good. 

A Boy's Workshop — Henry R. Waite. 

The Child Housekeeper — Colson & Chittenden. 

The Young Engineer — Hammond Hall. 

The Boy Craftsman — A. N. Hall. 

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES 

For Wood and Metal- 
Chandler & Barber, Boston, Mass. 
A. L. Bemis, Worcester, Mass. 
Belcher & Loomis Hdw. Co., Providence, R. I. 
Hammacher, Schlemmer & Co., New York. 
Grand Rapids Hand Screw Co., Grand Rapids, Mich. 
Chas. A. Strelinger Co., Detroit, Mich. 
Orr & Lockett Hdw. Co., Chicago, 111. 
C. Christiansen, Chicago, 111. 
E. H. Sheldon & Co., Chicago, 111. 
Columbia School Supply Co., Indianapolis, Ind. 

For Raffia, Reed, Yarn, etc. — 

J. L. Hammett Co., Boston, Mass. 

American Rattan & Reed Co., Brooklyn, N. Y. 

United States Rattan Co., Hoboken, N. J. 

Atkinson, Metzner & Grover, Chicago, 111. 

Thomas Charles Co., Chicago, 111. 

Garden City Educational Co., Chicago, 111. 

Northwestern School Supply Co., Minneapolis, Minn. 

Faribeau Loom Co., 

For Statuary and Casts — 

P. P. Caproni & Bro., Boston, Mass. 
Boston Sculpture Co., Melrose, Mass. 
C. Hennecke Co., Milwaukee, Wis. 

II. SUBJECT MATTER 

No pupil is expected to make all the articles listed for any one 
group in a given year. The list includes many problems which 
have been found valuable, and as many are used as the time and 
the ability of the pupils will permit. This also allows the work to 
be somewhat different each year, so that unpromoted pupils do not 
deal the second time with exactly the same thing. It also suppHes 
extra work for those doing more than is found in the regular sched- 
ule. 



MANUAL TRAINING 145 



THIRD DIVISION 

I. Group Work. A. Dolls' houses and barns, built from 
cracker boxes. B. Furniture for these. 

This work is found very valuable in its social elements. Co- 
operation is brought about by having the boys make a doll's bed, 
and letting the girls furnish the bedding for it ; or by dividing the 
class into groups, and illustrating the factory system, by having 
each group responsible for a particular part of an article. The pu- 
pil finds that he must do his work with especial care. Other^vise 
he spoils the completed work of others as well as his own. 

II. Individual Work. A. Wood (requiring shaping in two 
dimensions, only). 1. Calendar Backs. 2. Match Strikes. 3. Paper 
knives. 4. Puzzles. B. Bent Iron Work. 1. Picture easels. 2. 
Mats. 3. Pen racks. 4. Ink stands. 5. Brackets. . C. Rafha (for 
girls). 1. Napkin ring. 2. Small basket. 3. Shopping bag. 

FOURTH DIVISION 

Toys, puzzles and games form the characteristic feature of this 
section. Contests in kite flying, archery, and kindred sports, among 
our own pupils, and with other schools are encouraged; and these 
contests are found very helpful in arousing enthusiasm and right 
school and class spirit. 

I. Toys. A. Bow and Arrow. B. Bow -gun. C. Flying machine. 
D. Kite. E. Wind Mill. F. Water motor. G. Telegraph. H. Won- 
dergraph. 

II. Puzzles. A. Nail. B. Block. C. String. 

III. Games. A. Solitaire board. B. Checker board. 

IV. Utility Models. A. Nail and screw boxes. B. Flower 
pot stand. C. Sled. D. Hygroscope. E. Skis. 

V. Reed Basketry and Weaving (for girls). A. Reed Mats. 
B. Trays. C. Baskets. D. Table Mats. E. Holders. F. Book 
bag. G. Rugs, (from combinations of mats). 

FIFTH DIVISION 

I. Articles of use to the pupil in home or school are empha- 
sized here. A. Toolrack. B. Sleeve board. C. Necktie rack. D. 
Book rack. E. Tabouret. F. Porch Chair. G.Pen tray. H. Ink. 
stand. I. Whisk broom holder. J. Coat and trousers hangers. 
K. Shoe polishing box. L. Bob sled. M. Plate rack. 



146 MANUAL TRAINING 



II. Extra work of particular interest to certain pupils. A. 
Telegraph instruments. B. Zylophone (made by using maple 
blocks of varying length). C. Turning lathes and scroll saws (made 
from old sewing machines and run by water motors made in pre- 
vious grades). D. Model boat, propelled by clock works, and used 
as basis for contests of distance, speed, maneuvering, and control. 

III. Claymodeling and Pottery (for girls). A. Fruits. B. 
Leaves. C. Animals. D. Conventional forms. E. Low bowls. 
F. Flower pots. G. Fern dishes. 

SIXTH DIVISION 

In this grade we do more technical work, involving more dif- 
ficult processes of construction, and larger projects. 

I. Bread or Cutting Boards involving A. The four typical glue 
joints. 1. Butt. 2. Dowel. 3. Tongue and groove. 4. Spline or 
feather. B. The four typical modifications of the corners. 1. 
Straight oblique. 2. Tangent curve. 3. Shoulder curve. 4. Con- 
cave. 

II. Wooden or Metal Boxes. A. Kind. 1. Handkerchief. 
2. Glove. 3. Necktie. 4. Jewelry. B. Decoration. 1. Plain. 2. 
Inlaid. 3. Carved. 4. Metal. 

III. Individual projects varying in scope according to the 
time and the pupils' efficiency. A. Foot stools and chairs. 1. 
With woven seats. 2. With upholstered seats. B. Reading lamps. 
C. Desks. D. Mechanical drawing tables. (Note. Any ordinary 
article of furniture is possible for the boy who has done satisfactory 
work thru out the grades). 

IV. Pottery (for girls). A. Paper weight. B. Tea tile. C. 
Tray. D. Soap dishes. E. Vases. F. Jardiniere. (Note. Girls 
select kind and color of glaze wanted, and with assistance of teacher, 
grind and apply it. Opportunity for observing the firing is also 
given) . 



DOMESTIC ARTS 147 



DOMESTIC ARTS 

SEWING 

In planning the course in sewing care has been exercised that 
the useful gannents and domestic articles chosen for the application 
of the essential stitches should not merely be of interest to the 
pupils in these grades, but also that the work should not require 
fine coordination of either eye or body muscles. 

THIRD DIVISION 

I. Thimble and Needle Drills. 

II. Canvas Work, illustrative of 1. Basting. 2. Running. 3. 
Stitching. 4. Overhanding. 5. Overcasting. 6. Blanket stitching. 
7. Featherstitching. 

III. Application of Stitches. 1. On Christmas presents such as 
a. Needlebooks. b. Sachet bags. c. Penwipers, d. Bags. e. Towels. 
2. On finer work such as outfit for child's bed, consisting of a. 
Mattress, b. Sheets, c. Blankets, d. Comforter, e. Spread — with 
ornamental design, f. Pillows, g. Pillow cases, h. Fancy pillow 
covers. (Note. There is also given in this connection a discussion 
of bed-clothing, sanitation of beds, making of beds, etc.) 

FOURTH DIVISION 

I. Review of Stitches used on Bags. 

II. New stitches such as those needed for 1. French and 
felled seams. 2. Putting on bands. 3. Sewing on buttons. 4. Making 
button holes. (Illustrated by the making of a sewing apron, 
which is drafted.) 



148 DOMESTIC ARTS 



III. Application of all stitches to the making of 1. Christmas 
presents such as a. Dusters, b. Laundry bags. c. Drawer pads. d. 
Waist protectors, e. Handkerchiefs. 2. Household articles such 
as a. Towels, b. Holders, c. Napkins, d. Plain and hemstitched 
doilies, e. Runners (scalloped). 

IV. Mending, including such work as 1. Darning. 2. Patching. 
3. Piecing. 

V. Drafting and making cooking aprons (to be used next 
year in cooking class). 



COOKING 

Cooking is this year (1909-1910) given for the first time to 
Elementary School pupils — to girls in grades seven, eight, and 
nine. The course which follows is tentative, being made to fit 
present conditions, of which the one requiring most consideration 
is the time limit for the work. For both theory and practice, 
pupils in the Fifth Division (seventh grade) are allowed two forty- 
five-minute periods per week, and the Sixth Division pupils three 
such periods. To permit of some theory, and yet give time at the 
close of a period for the necessary putting away of all utensils 
"clean and in order," the actual practice in cooking must each day 
be upon what can readily be accomplished in the short time. For 
this reason bread-making, as well as some other long processes, 
must be omitted. 

FIFTH DIVISION 

I. Fruits: A. Applesauce. B. Baked apple. C. Stewed apple 

(whole). D. Canning. E. Cranberry jelly. F. Fruit cup. 

II. Starchy Foods : A. Tapioca. B. Cereals. 1. Cornmeal — 
mush, plain and fried. 2. Cream of wheat — plain and with 
dates. 3. White sauce (to show effect of heat on starch). 
4. Rice^ — plain, with cheese, in pudding. 5. Macaroni. 
C. Vegetables. 1. Potatoes: (a) Boiled, with and without 
jackets, b. Baked, c. Creamed, d. Au gratin. e. Potato 
balls, f. Sauted, g. French fried, h. Glazed sweet potatoes. 
2. Cabbage: a. Boiled, b. Scalloped. 3. Corn: a. Scal- 
loped, b. Fritters or "oysters." 



DOMESTIC ARTS 149 



III. Eggs (taught in season): A. Boiled. B. Poached — on 
toast. C. Shirred. D. Fried. E. Scrambled. F. Omelet. 
G. Deviled. H. Creamed, on toast. I. Marguerites. J. 
Snow pudding. K. Prune whip. L. Lemon souffle. 

IV. Milk: A. Junket pudding. B. Cornstarch pudding. 
C. Custard: 1. Boiled. 2. Baked. 3. Caramel. D. Cream 
toast. E. Cream soups: 1. Pea. 2. Corn. 3. Tomato. 
4. Oyster. F. Croutons (to accompany soups). 

V. Beverages: A. Cocoa and chocolate. B. Lemonades and 
fruit punch. C. Tea and coffee. D. Serving afternoon tea, etc. 

VI. Salads: A. With boiled salad dressing: 1. Banana salad. 

2. Celery and cabbage salad. 3. Potato salad. B. With 
Mayonnaise dressing: 1. Waldorf salad. 2. Fruit salad. 

3. Porcupine salad. C. Wafers (to serve with salad) — plain, 
and cheese wafers. 

VII. Sandwiches: A. Cheese. B. Egg. C. Meat. D. Pimento. 
E. Raisin. 

VIII. Gelatine: A. Lemon jelly. B. Sparkling lemon jelly. 
C. Fruit gelatine. 

IX. Ices and Ice Cream. 

SIXTH DIVISION 

I. Preservation of foods: 

II. Food classification: A. Carbohydrates: 1. Sugar: Stages 
in boiling sugar: a. Thread stage — marshmallows. b. Soft 
ball stage — fondant, pinoche, fudge, c. Hard ball stage — 
taffy, d. Caramel stage — peanut brittle, e. Stuffed dates 
(accessory). 2. Starch: a. Coarse oatmeal, b. Fried oat- 
meal, c. Rice. d. Moulded rice. e. Tapioca, f. Tapioca 
custard. 3. Cellulose: a. Celery, creamed, b. Carrots, 
sauted. B. Fats: 1. Making of butter. 2. Bacon — 

■ oysters in bacon. 3. Frying in lard and in oil: a. Rice cro- 
quettes, b. Salmon croquettes, c. Potato balls. 4. Saute- 
ing: a. Apples. b. Oysters. C. Proteids: 1. Eggs: 
a. Boiled three ways. b. Omelet, c. Custard. 2. Meats: 
a. Chops. b. Roast. c. Warmed over meat — minced, on 
toast; hash, cottage pie. d. Stew — rice border. 3. Cheese: 
a. Fondue, b. Timbales. 



150 DOMESTIC ARTS 



IIL Breads and Cakes : A. Batters: 1. Thin batters: a. With 
air as a leavening agent — cream puffs, b. With baking pow- 
der as a leavening agent — griddle cakes. 2. Thick batters: 
a. With baking powder as a leavener — Muffins, Health 
food muffins, Sally Lunn, Scones, Cakes and their frostings, 
Gingerbread, Cottage pudding, Steamed Graham pudding. 

B. Doughs: 1. Cookies. 2. Doughnuts. 3. Biscuit. 
4. Short-cake. 5. Pastry. C. Sponges: 1. Bread. 2. Rolls. 
3. Ways of using stale bread : a. French toast, b. Bread 
pudding. c. Use of crumbs: (1) Scalloped dishes. 
(2) Bread omelet. (3) Bread griddle cakes. (4) Crumbing — 
veal croquettes. 

IV. Miscellaneous: A. Fireless cooker. B. Invalid cookery: 

1. Gruel. 2. Toast water. 3. Egg-nog. 4. Invalid's tray. 

C. 1. Serving — meal prepared and served by class. 

2. Suitable combinations of food. D. Canning. E. Ices 
and Ice creams. 



PENMANSHIP 151 



PENMANSHIP 

The really important elements of success in writing are the 
position of the body, of the arms and hands, of the paper, the 
manner of holding the pen, and the movement. This applies 
equally to the vertical and the slant styles of writing. 

The important thing in writing is speed and movement, while 
the direction of the lines and the special style of letters are of second- 
ary importance. It would, indeed, be difficult to decide upon a 
universal style of writing since it is put to so many different uses. 

If correct habits of writing have been established in the school 
room the necessary transition period from school to office hand, 
from round to slant, or vice versa, will be of short duration. How- 
ever, if the boy has been taught merely to make letters, regardless 
of speed and movement, he will meet with utter failure in any 
style of writing when he attempts to adapt his hand to the neces- 
sities of business life. 

To establish and work out broad and well defined principles 
which may have a lasting influence would seem all important in 
teaching the art of writing. Therefore we make an effort to im- 
press the following principles underlying correct writing thruout 
the grades. 

I. Position of the body, arms, hands, pen and paper. 

a. Sit directly in front of the desk, feet squarely on the floor. 

b. Allow two-thirds of the forearm to rest upon the desk. 

c. Let the hand rest upon the first joint of the little finger, 
in a position to move back and forth easily with the forearm. 

d. The pen should be held lightly but firmly vv^ith the edge of 
the thumb upon the holder, the first finger on the holder, allowing 
the holder to rest upon the root of the nail of the middle finger. 

e. The position of the paper should correspond with the direc- 
tion of the lines. If vertical writing be employed, place the paper 



152 PENMANSHIP 



in front of the writer so that the left edge will be opposite the cen- 
ter line of the body. In the slanting style the paper is turned so 
that it will correspond with the slant of the letters. 

II. Form. 

1. Vertical Writing. The circle is the fundamental form 
in the vertical hand, and the letters are therefore circular in form. 

Retrace to make angles and turns in the vertical style. In 
most styles of writing the lines simply touch in forming an angle, 
and the result is short angles and turns, and close spacing between 
lines. The vertical style because of the retracing requires broad 
turns. Allow wide spacing between letters, words and sentences, 
and above and below each sentence or line of writing. The capi- 
tal, loop and stem letters are two spaces high in the vertical hand 
— all other letters are but one space high — the proportion there- 
fore is as two to one. It must be continually borne in mind that 
the vertical style is not the slant straightened up — but is a char- 
acteristic hand based upon certain well defined principles. It lends 
itself especially well to all blackboard work in lower grades, and 
has a practical value in primary work. 

2. Slant Writing. The oval is the fundamental form in 
the slant hand. The turns are broader in the modern slant hand 
than in the early Spencerian style. The former proportion of 
three to one has been reduced to two to one — the same as in the 
vertical hand. Also wide spacing is allowed between letters, words 
and sentences and above and below sentences and lines. A modi- 
fied slant hand, as given, is taught in all grades. 

III. Movement and Speed. 

Movement and speed are as fundamental in writing as are 
rhythm and time in music. 

Movement and speed depend largely upon a well regulated 
course in movement exercises, which should begin with the first 
lessons in writing, and end when good movement has become a 
habit. The child can not apply the principles of good movement 
until he has gained sufficient control of hand, arm, and rhythmic 
element. This mastery of principles depends upon daily practice 
of exercises as much in writing as in learning to play the violin. 
School room and business college results differ largely because of 
the daily continuous movement drills in the latter, as opposed to 



PENMANSHIP 153 



the intermittent lessons which are possible in the school room. 
For this reason it takes a longer time to see the effect of movement 
drill in the school room, and the child is continually handicapped 
because of inability to apply that which he has not yet fully mas- 
tered. 

The art of learning to write is a growth as are all other arts, 
and the most effective movement work is possible in the higher 
grades at a time when the writing lesson usually becomes very ir- 
regular. This often retards an ordinary change from school to 
business handwriting, regardless of style of letters employed. 

IV. Rhythmic Movement. 

Letters are a result of movement and depend for form, speed 
and beauty upon a rhythmic, regular and rapid movement. Rhythm 
is one of the fundamental elements belonging to good movement, 
and the fine rhythmic sense of the musician must be evident in the 
writing period else the movement will not be practical. 

A rhythmic method of counting for exercises, words and let- 
ters is necessary in establishing a regular, rapid movement. Notice 
the accent in counting with as much care as in a music lesson. As 
the strong, weak beats alternate in music so the counts should al- 
ternate in writing. The down stroke receives the strong beat or 
count, the up stroke a light beat or count. In counting for the 
capital O count one-two, one-two, one-two, quitting the two quick- 
ly and lightly. If the word "and" be used in counting it should 
always be spoken lightly and rapidly since it is used only for con- 
necting lines. The voice in counting should be a light staccato — 
and thru the medium of the voice should be indicated a continu- 
ous, elastic movement. 

We place much emphasis upon the use of the forearm, and 
try to secure the free use of both hand and arm. 

V. Method of Practice. 

With beginners the blackboard is used exclusively for a con- 
siderable time. Here we allow the child at first entire freedom to 
make the form as best he can, but always with the full arm move- 
ment. Gradually he is taught to execute definite forms of uniform 
size. Clear conception of symmetry in simple forms and a good 
degree of skill in making them should be attained before the child 
is permitted to use pencil and paper at all. 



154 PENMANSHIP 



Upon changing from blackboard to paper we use a broad- 
pointed pencil, or checking crayon, and unruled manila paper cut 
to proper size. 

With these the blackboard exercises are repeated with only 
enough modification to maintain the interest and to correspond 
with the child's better sense of form, proportion and symmetry. 
We allow him to make very large forms at first, and do not hurry 
into the early writing of words and sentences. If the blackboard 
practice has been of the right kind the child will quite naturally 
use his whole arm when he begins to work with paper. This is 
continued indefinitely; though gradually control of the finer mus- 
cles which move the fingers will be acquired and some degree of 
finger movement become both natural and promotive of facility 
and skill. 

VI. Order of Lesson. 

Good penmanship is the result of good order, a systematic way 
of doing things, quite as much as the study of form and movement. 

1. Signal for attention. 

2. Distribute materials according to definite plan. 

3. Present copy upon blackboard. Insist upon closest at- 
tention during presentation of copy. Erase blackboard carefully 
for presentation of copies. Arrange copy upon blackboard as you 
expect class to arrange work. One letter or copy in lower grades 
is quite sufficient for one lesson. Cultivate the spirit which aims 
to make perfect letters, or do perfect work. 

4. Require concert work in opening inkwells, books and tak- 
ing pens — let this be done quietly. 

5. After the class has tried copy, point out errors upon the 
blackboard, comparing the correct with the incorrect form. 

VII. Writing Books. 

Steadman's Graded Lessons in Writing. Use the manuscript 
Outline in first grade, Book I in second grade, Book II in third 
grade, and a corresponding succession of numbers for the remain- 
ing grades. 

VIII. Supplementary Work. 

1. A Course in Letter Writing. A course in letter writing 
is given for the sake of emphasizing necessary skill in writing and 
to impress the need of a practical handwriting. 



PENMANSHIP 155 



In this course the regular correspondence paper is used, and 
both handwriting and the use of good English receive a test not 
possible in the practice of formal writing book copies. 

2. Figures. The frequent use of figures in business and the 
importance of exhibiting clearly correct results in all business trans- 
actions makes necessary a special study as to structure, and prac- 
tice in making rapid figures. We present figures in the same way 
as letters — calling attention to characteristic features and ar- 
rangement. 

For convenience sake in adding and subtracting, figures should 
be written directly under each other. In order to regulate and 
increase the speed, count as in making the letters. Allowing pu- 
pils to see how many figures they can make in a minute is a simple 
device for promoting speed. An occasional practice upon figures 
is of great benefit — odd moments during the day can be profitably 
used in practicing upon a figure — or group of figures. 

3. Daily Written Work. There should be a minimum of 
written work — especially of copied work — and a maximum of 
well directed effort in all written exercises. The writing lesson and 
daily work should be so related that the child gains power every 
time he writes, and with a reasonable amount of written work 
much can be accomplished. 

We place a model lesson upon the blackboard for the sake of 
illustrating the general arrangement of the work. Twice during 
each term a selection consisting of not more than six lines is writ- 
ten by the pupils upon paper, especially designed for this purpose. 
This work is corrected — only general points being pointed out at 
first. Shape, size, direction of lines, spacing, quality of lines are 
considered — and with the disappearance of some of the more con- 
spicuous faults the writing begins to improve. This work is made 
the basis for comparison in all other written work. 

Punctualit}^ and system in conducting the writing lesson, and 
a sympathetic interest in every effort made by the pupil will go 
far towards awakening ambition and earnest effort on the part of 
the class in v>^ritinor. 



156 SPELLING 



SPELLING 

I. INTRODUCTION 

To counteract a general tendency toward inaccuracy in spell- 
ing we resort to two things, 1. A certain amount of drill in more 
or less formal spelling lessons, and 2. The cultivation of a sensitive 
spelling conscience. The close relation which should exist between 
the formal spelling lesson and the child's written vocabulary lays 
the basis for the ideal method of securing words for the spelling 
lesson which is to select them from the actual mistakes in the 
written work of the class. This gives words of which the children 
know the meaning and which, being in their own written vocabu- 
lary, need to be spelled and, being misspelled, to be drilled upon. 

However, in the higher grades there seems to be a limit to the 
value in calling children's attention to misspelled words in regu- 
larly recurring spelling lessons. At this period the necessity of 
showing them how to spell the word is largely gone and in place 
of it more attention must be paid to having them write by habit 
words which they can usually spell when their attention is called 
to them but which they leave in a slovenly condition when they 
are intent upon expressing their ideas. If the child by this time 
has not gained a sensitive spelling conscience he is hardly likely to 
get it in a formal spelling lesson. 

This sensitiveness should be sought in the early grades soon 
after the child begins to write. If five or six years later he still 
has poorly defined ideas of word-forms it means that too many 
words have been introduced in too short a time and consequently 
the child has been able to build up for himself no standard of cor- 
rectness, no list of words of which he is absolutely sure and to 
which he can make additions of other correct forms as he learns 
them. His spelling power is disorganized and lacking in tone. 

The most natural place and likewise the most satisfactory in 
which this sensitiveness may be acquired is in the regular everyday 
written work in lessons in geography, history, and arithmetic; and 
the most satisfactory method we have found is first and always to 



SPELLING 157 



impress upon the children the necessity of always spelling well and 
second to have them read over again anything they have written, 
for the sake of the form. They are expected, whenever in doubt 
about a word, to consult the teacher or the dictionary. When 
there are inexcusable mistakes in the work handed in, the mis- 
spelled words must be looked up and written out. 

II. SUBJECT MATTER 

FIRST DIVISION 

First Grade. What little is learned of spelling in the first 
grade is gained in connection with the reading and writing lessons, 
thru copying and from memory. The child learns to sign his 
name, to write labels, action commands, and the briefest of letters. 

Second Grade. In the second grade, in connection with the 
study of phonics, attention is directed to the individual letters 
forming a word. The words, however, are learned chiefly thru the 
writing of daily weather reports, and frequent letters, which are 
corrected by the teacher. During the writing of these exercises 
the child leaves blank spaces for .words which he can not spell. 
These spaces are filled by the teacher and when the pupil again re- 
ceives his book, he copies the new words into a properly arranged 
blank -book called his "dictionary." In doing later work he refers 
to this "dictionary" when doubt arises in his mind concerning the 
spelling of a word contained in it. 

SECOND DIVISION 

In this division the main work in spelling grows out of the 
children's needs, especially in written language, so that it can not 
be definitely stated. To overbalance this indefiniteness, and be- 
cause the text used is particularly helpful on many of the words 
most needed, about twelve minutes per day are given to text book 
work as follows: 

B Third Class. Rational Speller, No. I, Rice, First Year, 
completed. 

A Third Class. Rational Speller, No. I, Rice, Second Year, 
completed. 

B Fourth Class. Rational Speller, No. I, Rice, Third Year, 
completed. 



